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Nhất Hạnh. & Plum Village

고용한 정원 — Tue, 16 May 2023 16:34:23 +0900

In this Vietnamese name, the surname is Thích. In accordance with Vietnamese custom, this person should be referred to by the given name, Nhất Hạnh.

Thích Nhất HạnhTitlePersonalBornDiedReligionSchoolLineageKnown forOther namesDharma namesSenior postingTeacherBased in

Zen Buddhism

Thích Nhất Hạnh (/ˈtɪk ˈnjʌt ˈhʌn/ TIK NYUHT HUHN; Vietnamese: [tʰǐk̟ ɲə̌t hâjŋ̟ˀ] (

listen); born Nguyễn Xuân Bảo; 11 October 1926 – 22 January 2022) was a Vietnamese Thiền Buddhist monk, peace activist, prolific author, poet and teacher,[2] who founded the Plum Village Tradition, historically recognized as the main inspiration for engaged Buddhism.[3] Known as the "father of mindfulness",[4] Nhất Hạnh was a major influence on Western practices of Buddhism.[2]

In the mid-1960s, Nhất Hạnh co-founded the School of Youth for Social Services and created the Order of Interbeing.[3] He was exiled from South Vietnam in 1966 after expressing opposition to the war and refusing to take sides.[2][5][6] In 1967, Martin Luther King Jr. nominated him for a Nobel Peace Prize.[7][2] Nhất Hạnh established dozens of monasteries and practice centers[2] and spent many years living at the Plum Village Monastery, which he founded in 1982 in southwest France near Thénac,[8] traveling internationally to give retreats and talks. Nhất Hạnh promoted deep listening as a nonviolent solution to conflict and sought to raise awareness of the interconnectedness of all elements in nature.[9] He coined the term "engaged Buddhism" in his book Vietnam: Lotus in a Sea of Fire.[10]

After a 39-year exile, Nhất Hạnh was permitted to visit Vietnam in 2005.[5] In 2018, he returned to Vietnam to his "root temple", Từ Hiếu Temple, near Huế,[11] where he lived until his death in 2022, at the age of 95.[12]

Early life

Nhất Hạnh was born Nguyễn Xuân Bảo on 11 October 1926, in the ancient capital of Huế in central Vietnam.[13][7][14] He is 15th generation Nguyễn Đình; the poet Nguyễn Đình Chiểu, author of Lục Vân Tiên, was his ancestor.[15] His father, Nguyễn Đình Phúc, from Thành Trung village in Thừa Thiên, Huế, was an official with the French administration.[15] His mother, Trần Thị Dĩ, was a homemaker[7] from Gio Linh district.[15] Nhất Hạnh was the fifth of their six children.[15] Until he was age five, he lived with his large extended family at his grandmother's home.[15] He recalled feeling joy at age seven or eight after he saw a drawing of a peaceful Buddha, sitting on the grass.[14][7] On a school trip, he visited a mountain where a hermit lived who was said to sit quietly day and night to become peaceful like the Buddha. They explored the area, and he found a natural well, which he drank from and felt completely satisfied. It was this experience that led him to want to become a Buddhist monk.[6] At age 12, he expressed an interest in training to become a monk, which his parents, cautious at first, eventually let him pursue at age 16.[14]

Names applied to him

Nhất Hạnh had many names in his lifetime. As a boy, he received a formal family name (Nguyễn Đình Lang) to register for school, but was known by his nickname (Bé Em). He received a spiritual name (Điệu Sung) as an aspirant for the monkhood; a Lineage name (Trừng Quang) when he formally became a lay Buddhist; and when he ordained as a monk he received a Dharma name (Phùng Xuân). He took the Dharma title Nhất Hạnh when he moved to Saigon in 1949.[16]

The Vietnamese name Thích (釋) is from "Thích Ca" or "Thích Già" (釋迦, "of the Shakya clan").[17] All Buddhist monastics in East Asian Buddhism adopt this name as their surname, implying that their first family is the Buddhist community. In many Buddhist traditions, a person can receive a progression of names. The lineage name is given first when a person takes refuge in the Three Jewels. Nhất Hạnh's lineage name is Trừng Quang (澄光, "Clear, Reflective Light"). The second is a dharma name, given when a person takes vows or is ordained as a monastic. Nhất Hạnh's dharma name is Phùng Xuân (逢春, "Meeting Spring") and his dharma title is Nhất Hạnh.[17]

Neither Nhất (一) nor Hạnh (行), which approximate the roles of middle name and given name, was part of his name at birth. Nhất means "one", implying "first-class", or "of best quality"; Hạnh means "action", implying "right conduct" or "good nature". He translated his Dharma names as "One" (Nhất) and "Action" (Hạnh). Vietnamese names follow this convention, placing the family name first, then the middle name, which often refers to the person's position in the family or generation, followed by the given name.[18]

Nhất Hạnh's followers called him Thầy ("master; teacher"), or Thầy Nhất Hạnh. Any Vietnamese monk in the Mahayana tradition can be addressed as "thầy", with monks addressed as thầy tu ("monk") and nuns addressed as sư cô ("sister") or sư bà ("elder sister"). He is also known as Thiền Sư Nhất Hạnh ("Zen Master Nhất Hạnh").[19]

Education

Buddha hall of the Từ Hiếu Pagoda

At age 16, Nhất Hạnh entered the monastery at Từ Hiếu Temple, where his primary teacher was Zen Master Thanh Quý Chân Thật, who was from the 43rd generation of the Lâm Tế Zen school and the ninth generation of the Liễu Quán school.[13][20][14] He studied as a novice for three years and received training in Vietnamese traditions of Mahayana and Theravada Buddhism.[13] Here he also learned Chinese, English and French.[6] Nhất Hạnh attended Báo Quốc Buddhist Academy.[13][2] Dissatisfied with the focus at Báo Quốc Academy, which he found lacking in philosophy, literature, and foreign languages, Nhất Hạnh left in 1950[13] and took up residence in the Ấn Quang Pagoda in Saigon, where he was ordained as a monk in 1951.[14] He supported himself by selling books and poetry while attending Saigon University,[13] where he studied science.[21]

In 1955, Nhất Hạnh returned to Huế and served as the editor of Phật Giáo Việt Nam (Vietnamese Buddhism), the official publication of the General Association of Vietnamese Buddhists (Tổng Hội Phật Giáo Việt Nam) for two years before the publication was suspended as higher-ranking monks disapproved of his writing. He believed that this was due to his opinion that South Vietnam's various Buddhist organisations should unite. In 1956, while he was away teaching in Đà Lạt, his name was expunged from the records of Ấn Quang, effectively disowning him from the temple. In late 1957, Nhất Hạnh decided to go on retreat, and established a monastic “community of resistance” named Phương Bôi, in Đại Lao Forest near Đà Lạt. During this period, he taught at a nearby high school and continued to write, promoting the idea of a humanistic, unified Buddhism.[13]

From 1959 to 1961, Nhất Hạnh taught several short courses on Buddhism at various Saigon temples, including the large Xá Lợi Pagoda, where his class was cancelled mid-session and he was removed due to disapproval of his teachings. Facing further opposition from Vietnamese religious and secular authorities,[13] Nhất Hạnh accepted a Fulbright Fellowship [6] in 1960 to study comparative religion at Princeton University.[22] He studied at the Princeton Theological Seminary in 1961.[23][2] In 1962 he was appointed lecturer in Buddhism at Columbia University [14] and also taught as a lecturer at Cornell University.[2] By then he had gained fluency in French, Classical Chinese, Sanskrit, Pali and English, in addition to his native Vietnamese.[22]

Career

Activism in Vietnam 1963–1966

In 1963, after the military overthrow of the minority Catholic regime of President Ngo Dinh Diem, Nhất Hạnh returned to South Vietnam on 16 December 1963, at the request of Thich Tri Quang, the monk most prominent in protesting the religious discrimination of Diem, to help restructure the administration of Vietnamese Buddhism.[13] As a result of a congress, the General Association of Buddhists and other groups merged to form the Unified Buddhist Church of Vietnam (UBCV) in January 1964, and Nhất Hạnh proposed that the executive publicly call for an end to the Vietnam War, help establish an institute for the study of Buddhism to train future leaders, and create a centre to train pacifist social workers based on Buddhist teaching.[13]

In 1964, two of Nhất Hạnh's students founded La Boi Press with a grant from Mrs. Ngo Van Hieu. Within two years, the press published 12 books, but by 1966, the publishers risked arrest and jail because the word "peace" was taken to mean communism.[24] Nhất Hạnh also edited the weekly journal Hải Triều Âm (Sound of the Rising Tide), the UBCV's official publication. He continually advocated peace and reconciliation, notably calling in September 1964, soon after the Gulf of Tonkin incident, for a peace settlement, and referring to the Viet Cong as brothers. The South Vietnamese government subsequently closed the journal.[13]

On 1 May 1966, at Từ Hiếu Temple, Nhất Hạnh received the "lamp transmission" from Zen Master Chân Thật, making him a dharmacharya (teacher)[17] and the spiritual head of Từ Hiếu and associated monasteries.[17][25]

Vạn Hanh Buddhist University

On 13 March 1964, Nhất Hạnh and the monks at An Quang Pagoda founded the Institute of Higher Buddhist Studies (Học Viện Phật Giáo Việt Nam), with the UBCV's support and endorsement.[13] Renamed Vạn Hanh Buddhist University, it was a private institution that taught Buddhist studies, Vietnamese culture, and languages, in Saigon. Nhất Hạnh taught Buddhist psychology and prajnaparamita literature there,[14] and helped finance the university by fundraising from supporters.[13]

School of Youth for Social Service (SYSS)

Chân Không
(Sister True Emptiness)

In 1964, Nhất Hạnh co-founded[3] the School of Youth for Social Service (SYSS), a neutral corps of Buddhist peace workers who went into rural areas to establish schools, build healthcare clinics, and help rebuild villages.[8] The SYSS consisted of 10,000 volunteers and social workers who aided war-torn villages, rebuilt schools and established medical centers.[26] He left for the U.S. shortly afterwards and was not allowed to return, leaving Sister Chân Không in charge of the SYSS. Chân Không was central to the foundation and many of the activities of the SYSS, which organized medical, educational and agricultural facilities in rural Vietnam during the war.[27] Nhất Hạnh was initially given substantial autonomy to run the SYSS, which was initially part of Vạn Hạnh University. In April 1966, the Vạn Hạnh Students’ Union under the presidency of Phượng issued a "Call for Peace". Vice Chancellor Thích Minh Châu dissolved the students' union and removed the SYSS from the university's auspices.[13]

The Order of Interbeing

Main article: Order of Interbeing

Nhất Hạnh created the Order of Interbeing (Vietnamese: Tiếp Hiện), a monastic and lay group, between 1964[8] and 1966.[22] He headed this group, teaching the Five Mindfulness Trainings[28] and the Fourteen Mindfulness Trainings.[29][3] Nhất Hạnh established the Order of Interbeing from a selection of six SYSS board members, three men and three women, who took a vow to practice the Fourteen Precepts of Engaged Buddhism.[30] He added a seventh member in 1981.[30]

In 1967, Nhat Chi Mai, one of the first six Order of Interbeing members, lit herself on fire in front of the Tu Nghiem Pagoda in Saigon as a peace protest after calling for an end to the Vietnam War.[3][31][32] On several occasions, Nhất Hạnh explained to Westerners that Thích Quảng Đức and other Vietnamese Buddhist monks who self-immolated during the Vietnam war did not perform acts of suicide; rather, their acts were, in his words, aimed "at moving the hearts of the oppressors, and at calling the attention of the world to the suffering endured then by the Vietnamese."[33][34][32][35]

The Order of Interbeing expanded into an international community of laypeople and monastics focused on "mindfulness practice, ethical behavior, and compassionate action in society."[36] By 2017, the group had grown to include thousands known to recite the Fourteen Precepts.[30]

During the Vietnam War

Vạn Hạnh University was taken over by one of the chancellors, who wished to sever ties with Nhất Hạnh and the SYSS, accusing Chân Không of being a communist. Thereafter the SYSS struggled to raise funds and faced attacks on its members. It persisted in its relief efforts without taking sides in the conflict.[10]

Nhất Hạnh returned to the U.S. in 1966 to lead a symposium in Vietnamese Buddhism at Cornell University and continue his work for peace.[13] He was invited by Professor George McTurnan Kahin, also of Cornell and a U.S. government foreign policy consultant, to participate on a forum on U.S. policy in Vietnam. On 1 June, Nhất Hạnh released a five-point proposal addressed to the U.S. government, recommending that (1) the U.S. make a clear statement of its desire to help the Vietnamese people form a government "truly responsive to Vietnamese aspirations"; (2) the U.S. and South Vietnam cease air strikes throughout Vietnam; (3) all anti-communist military operations be purely defensive; (4) the U.S. demonstrate a willingness to withdraw within a few months; and (5) the U.S. offer to pay for reconstruction.[13] In 1967 he wrote Vietnam — The Lotus in the Sea of Fire, about his proposals.[13] The South Vietnamese military junta responded by accusing him of treason and being a communist.[13]

While in the U.S., Nhất Hạnh visited Gethsemani Abbey to speak with the Trappist monk Thomas Merton.[37] When the South Vietnamese regime threatened to block Nhất Hạnh's reentry to the country, Merton wrote an essay of solidarity, "Nhat Hanh is my Brother".[37] In 1964, after the publication of his famous poem, "whoever is listening, be my witness: I cannot accept this war...", Nhất Hạnh was labeled an "antiwar poet" and denounced as a "pro-Communist propagandist" by the American press.[2] In 1965 he had written Martin Luther King Jr. a letter titled "In Search of the Enemy of Man".[38] During his 1966 stay in the U.S., Nhất Hạnh met King and urged him to publicly denounce the Vietnam War.[39] In 1967, King gave the speech "Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence" at Riverside Church in New York City, his first to publicly question U.S. involvement in Vietnam.[40] Later that year, King nominated Nhất Hạnh for the 1967 Nobel Peace Prize. In his nomination, King said, "I do not personally know of anyone more worthy of the Nobel Peace Prize than this gentle monk from Vietnam. His ideas for peace, if applied, would build a monument to ecumenism, to world brotherhood, to humanity".[41] King also called Nhất Hạnh "an apostle of peace and non-violence".[42] King had revealed the candidate he had chosen to nominate with a "strong request" to the prize committee, in sharp violation of Nobel traditions and protocol.[43][44] The committee did not make an award that year.[2]

Refuge in France

Nhất Hạnh moved to Paris in 1966.[14] He became the chair of the Vietnamese Buddhist Peace Delegation.[14]

In 1969, Nhất Hạnh established the Unified Buddhist Church (Église Bouddhique Unifiée) in France (not a part of the Unified Buddhist Church of Vietnam). In 1975, he formed the Sweet Potatoes Meditation Centre at Fontvannes, in the Foret d’Othe, near Troyes in Aube province southeast of Paris.[13] For the next seven years, he focused on writing, and completed The Miracle of Mindfulness, The Moon Bamboo, and The Sun My Heart.[13]

Nhất Hạnh began teaching mindfulness in the mid-1970s with his books, particularly The Miracle of Mindfulness (1975), serving as the main vehicle for his early teachings.[45] In an interview for On Being, he said that The Miracle of Mindfulness was "written for our social workers, first, in Vietnam, because they were living in a situation where the danger of dying was there every day. So out of compassion, out of a willingness to help them to continue their work, The Miracle of Mindfulness was written as a manual practice. And after that, many friends in the West, they think that it is helpful for them, so we allow it to be translated into English."[46]

Campaign to help boat people and expulsion from Singapore

When the North Vietnamese army took control of the south in 1975, Nhất Hạnh was denied permission to return to Vietnam,[14] and the communist government banned his publications.[13] He soon began to lead efforts to help rescue Vietnamese boat people in the Gulf of Siam,[47] eventually stopping under pressure from the governments of Thailand and Singapore.[48]

Recounting his experience years later, Nhất Hạnh said he was in Singapore attending a conference on religion and peace when he discovered the plight of the suffering of the boat people:[20]

So many boat people were dying in the ocean, and Singapore had a very harsh policy on the boat people… The policy of Singapore at that time was to reject the boat people; Malaysia, also. They preferred to have the boat people die in the ocean rather than to bring them to land and make them into prisoners. Every time there was a boat with the boat people [that came] to the shore, they tried to push them [back] out into the sea in order [for them] to die. They didn't want to host [them]. And those fishermen who had compassion, who were able to save the boat people from drowning in the sea, were punished. They had to pay a very huge sum of money so that next time they won't have the courage to save the boat people.

He stayed on in Singapore to organise a secret rescue operation. Aided by concerned individuals from France, the Netherlands, and other European countries, he hired a boat to bring food, water and medicine to refugees in the sea. Sympathetic fishermen who had rescued boat people would call up his team, and they shuttled the refugees to the French embassy in the middle of the night and helped them climb into the compound, before they were discovered by staff in the morning and handed over to the police where they were placed in the relative safety of detention.

When the Singapore government discovered the clandestine network, the police surrounded its office and impounded the passports of both Nhất Hạnh and Chân Không, giving them 24 hours to leave the country. It was only with the intervention of the then-French ambassador to Singapore Jacques Gasseau that they were given 10 days to wind down their rescue operations.

Nhất Hạnh was only allowed to return to Singapore in 2010 to lead a meditation retreat at the Kong Meng San Phor Kark See Monastery.

Plum Village

In 1982, Nhất Hạnh and Chân Không established the Plum Village Monastery, a vihara [A] in the Dordogne near Bordeaux in southern France.[8] Plum Village is the largest Buddhist monastery in Europe and America, with over 200 monastics and over 10,000 visitors a year.[49][50]

The Plum Village Community of Engaged Buddhism [51] (formerly the Unified Buddhist Church) and its sister organization in France, the Congrégation Bouddhique Zen Village des Pruniers, are the legally recognized governing bodies of Plum Village in France.

Expanded practice centres

Deer Park Monastery in California

By 2019, Nhất Hạnh had built a network of monasteries and retreat centres in several countries,[52] including France, the U.S., Australia, Thailand, Vietnam, and Hong Kong.[53][54] Additional practice centres and associated organizations Nhất Hạnh and the Order of Interbeing established in the US include Blue Cliff Monastery in Pine Bush, New York; the Community of Mindful Living in Berkeley, California; Parallax Press; Deer Park Monastery (Tu Viện Lộc Uyển), established in 2000[22] in Escondido, California; Magnolia Grove Monastery (Đạo Tràng Mộc Lan) in Batesville, Mississippi; and the European Institute of Applied Buddhism in Waldbröl, Germany.[55][56] (The Maple Forest Monastery (Tu Viện Rừng Phong) and Green Mountain Dharma Center (Ðạo Tràng Thanh Sơn) in Vermont closed in 2007 and moved to the Blue Cliff Monastery in Pine Bush.) The monasteries, open to the public during much of the year, provide ongoing retreats for laypeople, while the Order of Interbeing holds retreats for specific groups of laypeople, such as families, teenagers, military veterans, the entertainment industry, members of Congress, law enforcement officers and people of colour.[57][58][59]

According to the Thích Nhất Hạnh Foundation, the charitable organization that serves as the Plum Village Community of Engaged Buddhism's fundraising arm, as of 2017 the monastic order Nhất Hạnh established comprises over 750 monastics in 9 monasteries worldwide.[60]

Nhất Hạnh established two monasteries in Vietnam, at the original Từ Hiếu Temple near Huế and at Prajna Temple in the central highlands.

Writings

Nhất Hạnh has published over 130 books, including more than 100 in English, which as of January 2019 had sold over five million copies worldwide.[21][61] His books, which cover topics including spiritual guides and Buddhist texts, teachings on mindfulness, poetry, story collections, and scholarly essays on Zen practice,[22][7] have been translated into more than 40 languages as of January 2022.[62] In 1986 Nhất Hạnh founded Parallax Press, a nonprofit book publisher and part of the Plum Village Community of Engaged Buddhism.[63]

During his long exile, Nhất Hạnh's books were often smuggled into Vietnam, where they had been banned.[7]

Later activism

In 2014, major Jewish, Muslim, Hindu, Buddhist, Anglican, Catholic and Orthodox Christian leaders met to sign a shared commitment against modern-day slavery; the declaration they signed called for the elimination of slavery and human trafficking by 2020. Nhất Hạnh was represented by Chân Không.[64]

Nhất Hạnh was known to refrain from consuming animal products as a means of nonviolence toward animals.[65][35]

Christiana Figueres has said that Nhất Hạnh helped her overcome a personal crisis and develop the deep listening and empathy required to facilitate the Paris Agreement on climate change.[66]

Relations with Vietnamese governments

Nhất Hạnh's relationship with the government of Vietnam varied over the years. He stayed away from politics, but did not support the South Vietnamese government's policies of Catholicization. He questioned American involvement, putting him at odds with the Saigon leadership,[39][40] which banned him from returning to South Vietnam while he was abroad in 1966.[5]

His relationship with the communist government ruling Vietnam was tense due to its atheism, though he had little interest in politics. The communist government viewed him with skepticism, distrusted his work with the overseas Vietnamese population, and restricted his praying requiem on several occasions.[67]

Return visits to Vietnam 2005–2007

Religious approach and influence

Main article: Plum Village Tradition

Rewata Dhamma, Sangharakshita, and Nhất Hạnh (l-r) in Berlin, 1992

Nhất Hạnh combined a variety of teachings of Early Buddhist schools, Mahayana Buddhist traditions of Yogācāra and Zen, and ideas from Western psychology to teach mindfulness of breathing and the four foundations of mindfulness, offering a modern perspective on meditation practice. His presentation of the Prajnaparamita in terms of "interbeing" has doctrinal antecedents in the Huayan school of thought,[76] which "is often said to provide a philosophical foundation" for Zen.[77]

Nhất Hạnh completed new English and Vietnamese translations of the Heart Sutra in September 2014.[78] In a letter to his students,[78] he said he wrote these new translations because he thought that poor word choices in the original text had resulted in significant misunderstandings of these teachings for almost 2,000 years.[78]

Nhất Hạnh has also been a leader in the Engaged Buddhism movement[1] (he is credited with coining the term[79]), promoting the individual's active role in creating change. He rephrased the five precepts for lay Buddhists, which were traditionally written in terms of refraining from negative activities, as committing to taking positive action to prevent or minimize others' negative actions. For example, instead of merely refraining from stealing, Nhất Hạnh wrote, "prevent others from profiting from human suffering or the suffering of other species on Earth" by, for example, taking action against unfair practices or unsafe workplaces.[80] He credited the 13th-century Vietnamese Emperor Trần Nhân Tông with originating the concept. Trần Nhân Tông abdicated his throne to become a monk and founded the Vietnamese Buddhist school of the Bamboo Forest tradition.[81]

Thích Nhất Hạnh in Vught, the Netherlands, 2006

Called "the Father of Mindfulness",[4] Nhất Hạnh has been credited as one of the main figures in bringing Buddhism to the West, and especially for making mindfulness well known in the West.[82] According to James Shaheen, the editor of the American Buddhist magazine Tricycle: The Buddhist Review, "In the West, he's an icon. I can't think of a Western Buddhist who does not know of Thich Nhất Hạnh."[5] His 1975 book The Miracle of Mindfulness was credited with helping to "lay the foundations" for the use of mindfulness in treating depression through "mindfulness-based cognitive therapy", influencing the work of University of Washington psychology professor Marsha M. Linehan, the originator of dialectical behavior therapy (DBT).[4] J. Mark G. Williams of Oxford University and the Oxford Mindfulness Centre has said, "What he was able to do was to communicate the essentials of Buddhist wisdom and make it accessible to people all over the world, and build that bridge between the modern world of psychological science and the modern healthcare system and these ancient wisdom practices – and then he continued to do that in his teaching."[4] One of Nhất Hạnh's students, Jon Kabat-Zinn, developed the mindfulness-based stress reduction course that is available at hospitals and medical centres across the world,[21] and as of 2015, around 80% of medical schools are reported to have offered mindfulness training.[83] As of 2019, it was reported that mindfulness as espoused by Nhất Hạnh had become the theoretical underpinning of a $1.1 billion industry in the U.S. One survey determined that 35% of employers used mindfulness in practices in the workplace.[21]

Nhất Hạnh was also known for his involvement in interfaith dialogue, which was not common when he began. He was noted for his friendships with Martin Luther King Jr. and Thomas Merton, and King wrote in his Nobel nomination for Nhất Hạnh, "His ideas for peace, if applied, would build a monument to ecumenism, to world brotherhood, to humanity".[84] Merton wrote an essay for Jubilee in August 1966 titled "Nhất Hạnh Is My Brother", in which he said, "I have far more in common with Nhất Hạnh than I have with many Americans, and I do not hesitate to say it. It is vitally important that such bonds be admitted. They are the bonds of a new solidarity ... which is beginning to be evident on all five continents and which cuts across all political, religious and cultural lines to unite young men and women in every country in something that is more concrete than an ideal and more alive than a program."[84] The same year, Nhất Hạnh met with Pope Paul VI and the pair called on Catholics and Buddhists to help bring about world peace, especially relating to the conflict in Vietnam.[84] According to Buddhism scholar Sallie B. King, Nhất Hạnh was "extremely skilled at expressing their teachings in the language of a kind of universal spirituality rather than a specifically Buddhist terminology. The language of this universal spirituality is the same as the basic values that they see expressed in other religions as well".[85]

Final years

Nhất Hạnh with monks and nuns at the Plum Village in Thailand

In November 2014, Nhất Hạnh experienced a severe brain hemorrhage and was hospitalized.[86][87] After months of rehabilitation, he was released from the stroke rehabilitation clinic at Bordeaux Segalen University. In July 2015, he flew to San Francisco to speed his recovery with an aggressive rehabilitation program at UCSF Medical Center.[88] He returned to France in January 2016.[89] After spending 2016 in France, Nhất Hạnh travelled to Thai Plum Village.[90] He continued to see both Eastern and Western specialists while in Thailand,[90] but was unable to verbally communicate for the remainder of his life.[90]

In November 2018, a press release from the Plum Village community confirmed that Nhất Hạnh, then 92, had returned to Vietnam a final time and would live at Từ Hiếu Temple for "his remaining days". In a meeting with senior disciples, he had "clearly communicated his wish to return to Vietnam using gestures, nodding and shaking his head in response to questions".[11] In January 2019, a representative of Plum Village, Sister True Dedication, wrote:

Thầy's health has been remarkably stable, and he is continuing to receive Eastern treatment and acupuncture. When there's a break in the rains, Thay comes outside to enjoy visiting the Root Temple's ponds and stupas, in his wheelchair, joined by his disciples. Many practitioners, lay and monastic, are coming to visit Tu Hieu, and there is a beautiful, light atmosphere of serenity and peace, as the community enjoys practicing together there in Thay's presence.[91]

While it was clear Nhất Hạnh could no longer speak, Vietnamese authorities assigned plainclothes police to monitor his activities at the temple.[92]

Death

Nhất Hạnh died at his residence in Từ Hiếu Temple on 22 January 2022, at age 95, as a result of complications from his stroke seven years earlier.[2][12][62] His death was widely mourned by various Buddhist groups in and outside Vietnam. The Dalai Lama, South Korean President Moon Jae-in and the U.S. State Department also issued words of condolence.[93][94][95]

His five-day funeral,[62] which began on the day of his death, had a seven-day wake[96] that culminated with his cremation on 29 January. In a 2015 book, Nhất Hạnh described what he wanted for the disposition of his remains, in part to illustrate how he believes that he "continues" on in his teachings:

I have a disciple in Vietnam who wants to build a stupa for my ashes when I die. He and others want to put a plaque with the words, "Here lies my beloved teacher." I told them not to waste the temple land...I suggested that, if they still insist on building a stupa, they have the plaque say, I am not in here. But in case people don't get it, they could add a second plaque, I am not out there either. If still people don't understand, then you can write on the third and last plaque, I may be found in your way of breathing and walking.[97]

At the conclusion of the 49-day mourning period, Nhất Hạnh's ashes were portioned and scattered in Từ Hiếu Temple and temples associated with Plum Village.

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How to Eat, Parallax Press, 2014. ISBN 978-1937006723.
How to Fight, Parallax Press, 2017. ISBN 978-1941529867.
How to Love, Parallax Press, 2014. ISBN 978-1937006884.
How to Relax, Parallax Press, 2015. ISBN 978-1941529089.
How to Sit, Parallax Press, 2014. ISBN 978-1937006587.
Is nothing something?: Kids' questions and zen answers about life, death, family, friendship, and everything in between, Parallax Press 2014. ISBN 978-1-937006-65-5.
Living Buddha, Living Christ, Riverhead Trade, 1997. ISBN 1-57322-568-1.
Love Letter to the Earth, Parallax Press, 2012. ISBN 978-1937006389.
Mindful Movements: Ten Exercises for Well-Being, Parallax Press 2008, ISBN 978-1-888375-79-4.
No Death, No Fear, Riverhead Trade reissue, 2003. ISBN 1-57322-333-6.
No Mud, No Lotus: The Art of Transforming Suffering, Parallax Press, 2014. ISBN 978-1937006853.
Old Path White Clouds: Walking in the Footsteps of the Buddha, Parallax Press, 1991. ISBN 81-216-0675-6.
Old Path, White Clouds: Walking in the Footsteps of the Buddha, Blackstone Audio, Inc.; 2016. ISBN 978-1504615983.
Our Appointment with Life: Sutra on Knowing the Better Way to Live Alone, Parallax Press, 1990. ISBN 1-935209-79-5.
Peace Is Every Step: The Path of Mindfulness in Everyday Life, Bantam reissue, 1992. ISBN 9780553351392.
Reconciliation: Healing the Inner Child, Parallax Press, 2010. ISBN 1-935209-64-7.
Savor: Mindful Eating, Mindful Life. HarperOne. 2010. ISBN 978-0-06-169769-2.
Silence: The Power of Quiet in a World Full of Noise, HarperOne (1705), 2015. ASIN: B014TAC7GQ.
Teachings on Love, Full Circle Publishing, 2005. ISBN 81-7621-167-2.
The Art of Communicating, HarperOne, 2013. ISBN 978-0-06-222467-5.
The Art of Living: Peace and Freedom in the Here and Now, HarperOne, 2017. ISBN 978-0062434661.
The Art of Power, HarperOne, 2007. ISBN 0-06-124234-9.
The Blooming of a Lotus, Beacon Press, 2009. ISBN 9780807012383.
The Diamond That Cuts Through Illusion, Commentaries on the Prajnaparamita Diamond Sutra, Parallax Press, 1992. ISBN 0-938077-51-1.
The Heart of the Buddha's Teaching, Broadway Books, 1999. ISBN 0-7679-0369-2.
The Heart Of Understanding: Commentaries on the Prajnaparamita Heart Sutra, Full Circle, 1997. ISBN 81-216-0703-5, ISBN 9781888375923 (2005 edition).
The Miracle of Mindfulness, Rider Books, 1991. ISBN 978-0-7126-4787-8.
The Miracle of Mindfulness: A Manual on Meditation, Beacon Press, 1999. ISBN 0-8070-1239-4 (Vietnamese: Phép lạ của sự tỉnh thức).
The Moon Bamboo, Parallax Press, 1989. ISBN 0938077201.
The Novice: A Story of True Love, HarperCollins, 2011. ISBN 978-0-06-200583-0.
The Other Shore: A New Translation of the Heart Sutra with Commentaries, Palm Leaves Press, 2017. ISBN 978-1-941529-14-0.
The Path of Emancipation: Talks from a 21-Day Mindfulness Retreat, Unified Buddhist Church, 2000. ISBN 81-7621-189-3.
The Pocket Thich Nhat Hanh, Shambhala Pocket Classics, 2012. ISBN 978-1-59030-936-0.
The Raft Is Not the Shore: Conversations Toward a Buddhist/Christian Awareness, Daniel Berrigan (Co-author), Orbis Books, 2000. ISBN 1-57075-344-X.
The Sun My Heart, Parallax Press, 1988. ISBN 0-938077-12-0
Thich Nhat Hanh: Essential Writings, Robert Ellsberg (Editor), Orbis Books, 2001. ISBN 1-57075-370-9.
Touching the Earth: Intimate Conversations with the Buddha, Parallax Press, 2004. ISBN 1-888375-41-8.
Transformation and Healing: Sutra on the Four Establishments of Mindfulness, Full Circle, 1997. ISBN 81-216-0696-9.
True Love: A Practice for Awakening the Heart, Shambhala Publications, 1997. ISBN 1-59030-404-7.
Under the Banyan Tree, Full Circle Publishing, 2008. ISBN 81-7621-175-3.
Understanding Our Mind, HarperCollins, 2006. ISBN 978-81-7223-796-7.
Vietnam: Lotus in a sea of fire. New York, Hill and Wang. 1967.
You Are Here: Discovering the Magic of the Present Moment, Shambhala Publications, 2010. ISBN 978-1590308387.
Your True Home: The Everyday Wisdom of Thich Nhat Hanh, Shambhala Publications, 2011. ISBN 978-1-59030-926-1.
Zen Keys: A Guide to Zen Practice, Harmony, 1994. ISBN 978-0-385-47561-7.
Zen and the Art of Saving the Planet, HarperCollins, 2021. ISBN 978-0-06-295479-4.

Awards and honours

Nobel laureate Martin Luther King Jr. nominated Nhất Hạnh for the Nobel Peace Prize in 1967.[41] The prize was not awarded that year.[98] Nhất Hạnh was awarded the Courage of Conscience award in 1991.[99]

Nhất Hạnh received 2015's Pacem in Terris Peace and Freedom Award.[100][101]

In November 2017, the Education University of Hong Kong conferred an honorary doctorate upon Nhất Hạnh for his "lifelong contributions to the promotion of mindfulness, peace and happiness across the world". As he was unable to attend the ceremony in Hong Kong, a simple ceremony was held on 29 August 2017, in Thailand, where John Lee Chi-kin, vice-president (academic) of EdUHK, presented the honorary degree certificate and academic gown to Nhất Hạnh on the university's behalf.[102][103]

In popular culture

Films

Nhất Hạnh has been featured in many films, including:

The Power of Forgiveness, shown at the Dawn Breakers International Film Festival [104]
Walk with Me, a documentary directed by Marc James Francis and Max Pugh, and supported by director Alejandro González Iñárritu.[105] Filmed over three years, Walk with Me focuses on the Plum Village monastics' daily life and rites, with Benedict Cumberbatch narrating passages from Fragrant Palm Leaves in voiceover.[106] The film was released in 2017, premiering at SXSW Festival.[105]
One: The Movie: Nhất Hạnh and Chân Không appear in this documentary that surveys beliefs on the meaning of life.[107]
A Cloud Never Dies: a biographical documentary produced by Pugh and Francis and narrated by Peter Coyote. Pugh, Max, Francis, Marc J. (2 April 2022). A Cloud Never Dies (documentary).

Graphic novel

Along with Alfred Hassler and Chân Không, Nhất Hạnh is the subject of the 2013 graphic novel The Secret of the 5 Powers.[108]

Sculpture

Nhất Hạnh was among 25 humanitarians featured in Remember Them: Champions for Humanity, a bronze monument by artist Mario Chiodo unveiled in Oakland, California, on 31 May 2013.[109][110] Abraham Lincoln, Martin Luther King Jr., Mahatma Gandhi, Nelson Mandela, Mother Teresa, Maya Angelou, Helen Keller, Rosa Parks, and Harvey Milk were among the personalities included in the sculpture.

반야심경

고용한 정원 — Thu, 11 May 2023 15:53:30 +0900

《반야심경》(般若心經, 산스크리트어: प्रज्ञापारमिताहृदय 프라냐파라미타 흐르다야 수트라)은

불교의 중심이 되는 경전으로

《대반야바라밀다경》의 요점을 간략하게 설명한 짧은 경전으로,

당나라 삼장법사인 현장(玄裝, 602~664)이 번역한 것이다.

260자로 되어 있다.

개요

《대반야바라밀다심경》(大般若波羅蜜多心經),

《마하반야바라밀다심경》(摩訶般若波羅蜜多心經)

또는 《반야바라밀다심경》(般若波羅蜜多心經,

산스크리트어: प्रज्ञापारमिताहृदयसूत्र, Prajñā-pāramitā-hṛdaya-sūtra)이라고도 한다.

불교의 핵심적인 이치인 반야바라밀다를 간결하고 명징하게 요약한 불교 경전의 정수에 해당한다.

《반야심경(般若心經)》의 산스크리트어 제목은 프라즈냐파라미타 흐르다야 수트라(Prajñāpāramitā-hṛdaya-sūtra)로

한자어 명칭에서 '심(心)'은 마음[心]을 뜻하는 치타(citta)의 번역어가 아니라

핵심 · 정수(精髓) · 정요(精要) · 에센스 또는 참된 앎[正知]을 뜻하는 흐르다야(hṛdaya)의 번역어이다.[1]

따라서 '반야심경(般若心經)'이라는

제목의 문자 그대로의 뜻은 '반야바라밀다 또는 《대반야바라밀다경》의 핵심 또는 정요(精要)를

간추려 담고있는 경전'이다.[2][3][4]

《반야심경》은 '관자재보살이 깊이 반야바라밀다를 행할 때(觀自在菩薩行深般若波羅蜜多時)'로 시작되는데,

두 《인왕경》 즉 《불설인왕반야바라밀경》과 《인왕호국반야바라밀다경》에서

고타마 붓다는 반야바라밀다를 행한다는 것이란

복인(伏忍) · 신인(信忍) · 순인(順忍) · 무생인(無生忍) · 적멸인(寂滅忍)의

5인(五忍)을 수행하는 것이라고 말하고 있다.[5][6][7][8]

5인(五忍)은 보살 즉 대승불교의 수행자의 수행계위인

10신 · 10주 · 10행 · 10회향 · 10지 · 등각 · 묘각의 52위 가운데

최초의 10신을 제외한

나머지 42위

즉 42현성(四十二賢聖)을

인(忍) 즉 지혜,

그 중에서도 특히 무루혜의 성취라는 관점에서

크게 다섯 그룹으로 나눈 것으로,

따라서 반야바라밀다를 행한다는 것은

10신 즉 청정한 믿음을 바탕으로 하여 상위의 42위의 보살 수행계위를 직접 밟아가

최종적으로 적멸인(寂滅忍) 즉 묘각(妙覺)을 증득하는 것을 말한다.[9][10]

즉, 본래 갖추고 있는 위대한 지혜(prajñā)에 이르는(pāramitā) 것을 말한다.

'반야심경(般若心經)'은 '본래 갖추고 있는 위대한 지혜에 이르는 열쇠[心: 핵심]를 설하고 있는 경전'을 뜻한다.

본문

觀自在菩薩관자재보살 行深般若波羅蜜多時행심반야바라밀다시 照見五蘊皆空조견오온개공 度一切苦厄도일체고액
舍利子사리자! 色不異空색불이공 空不異色공불이색 色卽是空색즉시공 空卽是色공즉시색 受想行識수상행식 亦復如是역부여시

舍利子사리자! 是諸法空相시제법공상 不生不滅불생불멸 不垢不淨불구부정 不增不減부증불감

是故시고 空中無色공중무색 無受想行識무수상행식 無眼耳鼻舌身意무안이비설신의 無色聲香味觸法무색성향미촉법 無眼界무안계 乃至無意識界내지무의식계

無無明무무명 亦無無明盡역무무명진 乃至無老死내지무노사 亦無老死盡역무노사진 無苦集滅道무고집멸도 無智무지 亦無得역무득 以無所得故이무소득고

菩提薩埵보리살타 依般若波羅蜜多故의반야바라밀다고 心無罣礙심무괘애 無罣礙故무괘애고 無有恐怖무유공포 遠離顛倒夢想원리전도몽상 究竟涅槃구경열반

三世諸佛삼세제불 依般若波羅蜜多故의반야바라밀다고 得阿耨多羅三藐三菩提득아뇩다라삼먁삼보리

故知般若波羅蜜多고지반야바라밀다 是大神呪시대신주 是大明呪시대명주 是無上呪시무상주 是無等等呪시무등등주 能除一切苦능제일체고 眞實不虛진실불허

故說般若波羅蜜多呪고설반야바라밀다주 卽說呪曰즉설주왈

揭諦아제 揭諦아제 波羅揭諦바라아제 波羅僧揭諦바라승아제 菩提보리 薩婆訶사바하[11]

관자재보살께서 반야바라밀다를 행하실 때 오온이 공(空)한 것을 비추어 보시고 모든 괴로움을 깨달으셨도다.
사리자여! 색(色)이 공(空)과 다르지 아니하고, 공이 색과 다르지 아니하니 색은 곧 공이오, 공은 곧 색이며, 수(受)·상(想)·행(行)·식(識) 또한 그러하니라.
사리자여! 이러한 법은 서로 공하니 새로 나거나 사라지지 않으며, 더럽지도 깨끗하지도 않으며, 늘지도 줄지도 않느니라.
그러므로 공 안에는 색도, 수·상·행·식도, 안(眼)·이(耳)·비(鼻)·설(舌)·신(身)·의(意)도, 색(色)·성(聲)·향(香)·미(味)·촉(觸)·법도, 눈과 의식의 경계까지도 없도다.
무명(無明)과 무명이 다함도 없고, 늙음과 죽음, 늙음과 죽음이 다함까지도 없으며, 고집멸도(苦集滅道)도, 지혜도, 얻는 것도, 얻을 것도 없는 까닭에 보살은 반야바라밀다에 기대므로
마음에 걸릴 것이 없고, 걸리는 것이 없으므로 두려움이 없어 뒤바뀐 헛된 생각을 떠나 완전한 열반에 들어가노라.
삼세의 모든 부처님도 이 반야바라밀다에 기대므로 최상의 깨달음을 얻었도다.
고로 반야바라밀다는 가장 신비하고 밝은 주문이며, 위없는 주문이며, 무엇과도 견줄 수 없는 주문이니 온갖 괴로움을 없애고 진실하여 허망하지 않음을 알지니라.
따라서 반야바라밀다 주문을 읊노라
"가자, 가자, 피안(彼岸)으로 가자, 피안으로 넘어가자, 영원한 깨달음이여"

기타

반야심경을 영어로 번역한 것이 'The Heart of the Perfection of Wisdom Sutra' 또는 줄여서 'The Heart Sutra'이다.

참고 문헌

구마라습 한역, 번역자 미상 (K.19, T.246). 《불설인왕반야바라밀경》. 한글대장경 검색시스템 - 전자불전연구소 / 동국역경원. K.19(5-1021), T.245(8-825). [깨진 링크(과거 내용 찾기)]
불공 한역, 번역자 미상 (K.1340, T.245). 《불설인왕반야바라밀경]》. 한글대장경 검색시스템 - 전자불전연구소 / 동국역경원. K.1340(37-52), T.246(8-834). [깨진 링크(과거 내용 찾기)]
운허. 동국역경원 편집, 편집. 《불교 사전》. 2016년 3월 6일에 원본 문서에서 보존된 문서. 2015년 3월 9일에 확인함.
(영어) Sanskrit and Tamil Dictionaries. 《Cologne Digital Sanskrit Dictionaries》. Institute of Indology and Tamil Studies, Cologne University.
(중국어) 구마라습 한역 (T.245). 《불설인왕반야바라밀경(佛說仁王般若波羅蜜經)》. 대정신수대장경. T8, No. 245, CBETA. 2015년 3월 1일에 원본 문서에서 보존된 문서. 2015년 3월 9일에 확인함.
(중국어) 불공 한역 (T.246). 《인왕호국반야바라밀다경(仁王護國般若波羅蜜多經)》. 대정신수대장경. T8, No. 246, CBETA. 2015년 3월 1일에 원본 문서에서 보존된 문서. 2015년 3월 9일에 확인함.
(중국어) 佛門網. 《佛學辭典(불학사전)》. 2015년 3월 17일에 원본 문서에서 보존된 문서. 2015년 3월 9일에 확인함.
(중국어) 星雲. 《佛光大辭典(불광대사전)》 3판. 2011년 3월 19일에 원본 문서에서 보존된 문서. 2011년 3월 19일에 확인함.

각주

↑ Sanskrit and Tamil Dictionaries, "hrdaya". 2013년 4월 14일에 확인.
↑ 곽철환 2003, "심(心)". 2013년 4월 14일에 확인.
↑ 佛門網, ""般若心經". 2013년 4월 14일에 확인.
↑ 운허, "般若波羅蜜多心經(반야바라밀다심경)". 2013년 4월 14일에 확인.
↑ 구마라습 한역 & T.245, 《佛說仁王般若波羅蜜經(불설인왕반야바라밀경)》, 상권 〈3. 보살교화품(菩薩敎化品)〉. p. T08n0245_p0826b21 - T08n0245_p0826b25. 5인(五忍).
↑ 구마라습 한역, 번역자 미상 & K.19, T.245, 《불설인왕반야바라밀경》, 상권 〈3. 보살교화품(菩薩敎化品)〉. p. 11 / 50. 5인(五忍).
↑ 불공 한역 & T.246, 《仁王護國般若波羅蜜多經(인왕호국반야바라밀다경)》, 상권 〈3. 보살행품(菩薩行品)〉. p. T08n0246_p0836b11 - T08n0246_p0836b17. 5인(五忍).
↑ 불공 한역, 번역자 미상 & K.1340, T.246, 《인왕호국반야바라밀다경》, 상권 〈3. 보살행품(菩薩行品)〉. pp. 8-9 / 47. 5인(五忍).
↑ 운허, "五忍(오인)". 2013년 4월 12일에 확인.
↑ 星雲, "五忍". 2013년 4월 12일에 확인.
↑ गते गते पारगते पारसंगते बोधि स्वाहा(가테 가테 파라가테 파라상가테 보디 스와하)

Zazen 좌선 座禪

고용한 정원 — Thu, 11 May 2023 15:20:11 +0900

Zazen (literally "seated meditation"; Japanese: 座禅; simplified Chinese: 坐禅; traditional Chinese: 坐禪; pinyin: zuò chán; Wade–Giles: tso4-ch'an2, pronounced [tswô ʈʂʰǎn]) is a meditative discipline that is typically the primary practice of the Zen Buddhist tradition.[1][2]

The generalized Japanese term for meditation is 瞑想 (meisō);[3] however, zazen has been used informally to include all forms of seated Buddhist meditation. The term zuòchán can be found in early Chinese Buddhist sources, such as the Dhyāna sutras. For example, the famous translator Kumārajīva (344-413) translated a work termed Zuòchán sān mēi jīng (A Manual on the Samādhi of Sitting Meditation) and the Chinese Tiantai master Zhiyi (538–597 CE) wrote some very influential works on sitting meditation.[4][5] The earliest manual on sitting meditation from an author of the Zen tradition is the Zuòchán Yí which dates to the Northern Song dynasty (CE 960 - 1126).[6]

The meaning and method of zazen varies from school to school, but in general it is a quiet type of Buddhist meditation done in a sitting posture like the lotus position. The practice can be done with various methods, such as following the breath (anapanasati), mentally repeating a phrase (which could be a koan, a mantra, a huatou or nianfo) and a kind of open monitoring in which one is aware of whatever comes to our attention (sometimes called shikantaza or silent illumination). Repeating a huatou (a short meditation phrase) is a common method in Chinese Chan and Korean Seon. Meanwhile, the practice of silently reciting the Buddha Amitabha's name is common in the traditions influenced by Pure Land practice, and was also taught by Chan masters like Zongmi.[7]

In the Japanese Buddhist Rinzai school, zazen is usually combined with the study of koans. The Japanese Sōtō School makes less or no use of koans, preferring an approach known as shikantaza where the mind has no object at all.[8]

Practice

Five types of Zazen

Kapleau quotes Hakuun Yasutani's lectures for beginners. In lecture four, Yasutani lists five kinds of zazen:[9]

bompu, developing meditative concentration to aid well-being;
gedo, zazen-like practices from other religious traditions;
shojo, 'small vehicle' practices;
daijo, zazen aimed at gaining insight into true nature;
saijojo, shikantaza.

Sitting

A young master Hsuan Hua sitting in full lotus

In Zen temples and monasteries, practitioners traditi

onally sit zazen together in a meditation hall usually referred to as a zendo, each sitting on a cushion called a zafu[2] which itself may be placed on a low, flat mat called a zabuton.[2] Practitioners of the Rinzai school sit facing each other with their backs to the wall, while those of the Sōtō school sit facing the wall or a curtain.[10] Before taking one's seat, and after rising at the end of a period of zazen, a Zen practitioner performs a gassho bow to their seat, and a second bow to fellow practitioners.[11] The beginning of a period of zazen is traditionally announced by ringing a bell three times (shijosho), and the end of the period by ringing the bell either once or twice (hozensho). Long periods of zazen may alternate with periods of kinhin (walking meditation).[12][13]

Posture

The posture of zazen is seated, with crossed legs and folded hands, and an erect but settled spine.[14] The hands are folded together into a simple mudra over the belly.[14] In many practices, the practitioner breathes from the hara (the center of gravity in the belly) and the eyelids are half-lowered, the eyes being neither fully open nor shut so that the practitioner is neither distracted by, nor turning away from, external stimuli.

The legs are folded in one of the standard sitting styles:[2]

Kekkafuza (full-lotus)
Hankafuza (half-lotus)
Burmese (a cross-legged posture in which the ankles are placed together in front of the sitter)
Seiza (a kneeling posture using a bench or zafu)

It is not uncommon for modern practitioners to practice zazen in a chair,[2] sometimes with a wedge or cushion on top of it so that one is sitting on an incline, or by placing a wedge behind the lower back to help maintain the natural curve of the spine.

Samadhi

The initial stages of training in zazen resemble traditional Buddhist samatha meditation. The student begins by focusing on the breath at the hara/tanden[15] with mindfulness of breath (ānāpānasmṛti) exercises such as counting breath (sūsokukan 数息観) or just watching it (zuisokukan 随息観). Mantras are also sometimes used in place of counting. Practice is typically to be continued in one of these ways until there is adequate "one-pointedness" of mind to constitute an initial experience of samadhi. At this point, the practitioner moves on to koan-practice or shikantaza.

While Yasutani Roshi states that the development of joriki (定力) (Sanskrit samādhibala), the power of concentration, is one of the three aims of zazen,[16] Dogen warns that the aim of zazen is not the development of mindless concentration.[17]

Koan introspection

Main article: Koan

In the Rinzai school, after having developed awareness, the practitioner can now focus their consciousness on a koan as an object of meditation. While koan practice is generally associated with the Rinzai school and Shikantaza with the Sōtō school, many Zen communities use both methods depending on the teacher and students.

Shikantaza

Main article: Shikantaza

Zazen is considered the heart of Japanese Sōtō Zen Buddhist practice.[1][18] The aim of zazen is just sitting, that is, suspending all judgemental thinking and letting words, ideas, images and thoughts pass by without getting involved in them.[8][19] Practitioners do not use any specific object of meditation,[8] instead remaining as much as possible in the present moment, aware of and observing what is occurring around them and what is passing through their minds. Dogen says, in his Shobogenzo, "Sitting fixedly, think of not thinking. How do you think of not thinking? Nonthinking. This is the art of zazen."[20]

References

^ Jump up to:a b Warner, Brad (2003). Hardcore Zen: Punk Rock, Monster Movies, & the Truth about Reality. Wisdom Publications. p. 86. ISBN 086171380X.
^ Jump up to:a b c d e "Zazen Instructions". Zen Mountain Monastery. December 30, 2012. Retrieved April 1, 2015.
^ 保坂俊司『仏教とヨーガ』東京書籍、2004年。https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/瞑想
^ Yamabe, Nobuyoshi; Sueki, Fumihiko (2009). The sutra on the concentration of sitting meditation (Taishō Volume 15, Number 614), pp. xiv-xvii. Berkeley: Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research.
^ Swanson, Paul L. (2002). Ch'an and Chih-kuan: T'ien-t’ai Chih-i's View of "Zen" and the Practice of the Lotus Sutra. Presented at the International Lotus Sutra Conference on the theme "The Lotus Sutra and Zen", 11–16 July 2002. Source: "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 July 2007. Retrieved 10 July 2007. (accessed: 6 August 2008). p.4
^ Gregory, Peter N (ed). Ch'ang-lu Tsung-tse and Zen Meditation in 'Traditions of Meditation in Chinese Buddhism'. University of Hawaii Press, 1986.
^ Jones, Charles Brewer (2021). Pure Land : history, tradition, and practice. Boulder, Colorado. ISBN 978-1-61180-890-2. OCLC 1176322180.
^ Jump up to:a b c Warner, Brad (2003). Hardcore Zen: Punk Rock, Monster Movies, & the Truth about Reality. Wisdom Publications. pp. 189–190. ISBN 086171380X.
^ Kapleau, Philip (1989). The Three pillars of Zen: teaching, practice, and enlightenment. New York: Anchor Books. pp. 48–53. ISBN 0-385-26093-8.
^ Kapleau, Philip (1989). The Three pillars of Zen: teaching, practice, and enlightenment. New York: Anchor Books. p. 10(8). ISBN 0-385-26093-8.
^ Warner, Brad. "How To Sit Zazen". Dogen Sangha Los Angeles. Archived from the original on March 16, 2015. Retrieved April 1, 2015.
^ Heine, Steven; Wright, Dale S., eds. (2007). Zen Ritual : Studies of Zen Buddhist Theory in Practice: Studies of Zen Buddhist Theory in Practice. Oxford University Press. p. 223. ISBN 9780198041467.
^ Maezumi, Hakuyu Taizan; Glassman, Bernie (2002). On Zen Practice: Body, Breath, Mind. Wisdom Publications. pp. 48–49. ISBN 086171315X.
^ Jump up to:a b Suzuki, Shunryū (2011). Zen Mind, Beginner's Mind. Shambhala Publications. p. 8. ISBN 978-159030849-3.
^ Eihei Dogen; Taigen Dan Leighton; Shōhaku Okumura; John Daido Loori (16 March 2010). Dogen's Extensive Record: A Translation of the Eihei Koroku. Simon and Schuster. pp. 348–349. ISBN 978-0-86171-670-8.
^ Philip Kapleau, The three pillars of Zen.
^ Carl Bielefeldt (16 August 1990). Dogen's Manuals of Zen Meditation. University of California Press. pp. 137–. ISBN 978-0-520-90978-6.
^ Deshimaru, Taisen (1981) The Way of True Zen, American Zen Association, ISBN 978-0972804943
^ Suzuki, Shunryū (2011). Zen Mind, Beginner's Mind. Shambhala Publications. pp. 15–16. ISBN 978-159030849-3.
^ Dogen. "Principles of Zazen". Soto Zen Text Project. Retrieved April 24, 2013.

Bhikku Beopjeong

고용한 정원 — Thu, 11 May 2023 15:00:34 +0900

Beopjeong (Korean: 법정;

5 November 1932 - 11 March 2010),

born Pak Jaecheol (박재철),[1]

was a Buddhist monk and writer

from South Korea.[2]

Biography

Born in 1932 in Haenam County, South Jeolla Province, Beopjeong graduated from Mokpo Commercial High School and entered Chonnam National University. In 1954, his junior year, he left school and decided to become a Buddhist monk as a follower of Hyobong Hangnul, a Jogye Seon master.

Beopjeong was widely known for his musoyu (무소유) spirit,[3][4] literally meaning "nonpossession" or "lack of possession," which he propagated through many of his publications, which have been loved by many Koreans.[5] The following is a representative example of his direct, poignant style:

자연의 질서에 귀를 기울이고 있으면,
마음에 묻은 때가 조금씩 씻겨나가는 것을
가늠할 수 있다.

이런 날 누구에게도,
그 어떤 것에도 방해받음 없이
적적히 앉아 있으면
그대로가 존재의 기쁨이 된다.

산방한담

Listening to the sounds of nature,
I can ponder how best
to scrub away the grime of my heart.

On a day like this,
with nothing to disturb me,
sitting alone,
I know the joy of being.

Quiet Talks in the Mountains[6]

On December 14 1997, Cardinal Stephen Kim Sou-hwan of the Korean Catholic Church attended and offered congratulations on the opening of Gilsangsa Temple (길상사 吉祥寺), located in Seongbuk District, Seoul. In return, Beopjeong visited Myeongdong Cathedral on February 24, 1998, and delivered a special speech showing the harmony between religions.[7]

On March 11 2010, at the age of 77, in the 55th year of his monkhood, Beopjeong died in Gilsangsa, as a result of chronic lung cancer.

He said in his will: "Don't hold a funeral for me. Don't make a coffin. Dress me in cotton, which I used to wear. Scatter my ashes on the flower garden of the hut where I used to live." In accordance with his will, a simple cremation rite was held at Songgwangsa in Suncheon on March 13, 2010.[8] There was no decorated bier or elegies, and thousands of people from all over the country attended.

Bibliography

In Korean

Non-Possession (무소유, 無所有)[9] ISBN 9788908041318
The Sound of the Soul (영혼의 모음) ISBN 8946413409
Words and Silence (말과 침묵) ISBN 9788946413429
The Sound of Water, the Sound of Wind (물 소리 바람 소리) ISBN 9788946413375
Quiet Talks in the Mountains (산방한담) ISBN 8946411368
Throwing It Away, Leaving It All Behind (버리고 떠나기) ISBN 8946413360
India Travel Journal (인도 기행) ISBN 9788946415539
Desolate Forests, As Birds Have Gone (새들이 떠나간 숲은 적막하다) ISBN 8946413417
Flower Blossoms in the Mountains (산에는 꽃이 피네) ISBN 9788995904992
The Beautiful Finish (아름다운 마무리) ISBN 9788995904961
The Joy of Living Alone (홀로 사는 즐거움) ISBN 9788946414709
One Life, One Meeting (일기일회) ISBN 9788995904985
One for All, All for One (한 사람은 모두를 모두는 한 사람을) ISBN 9788993838022
May All Beings Be Happy (살아있는 것은 다 행복하라) ISBN 8995757701
The Books I Have Loved (내가 사랑한 책들) ISBN 9788993838107

In translation

May All Beings Be Happy (2006) - edited by Ryu Shiva, translated by Matty Wegehaupt[10]
The Sound of Water, the Sound of Wind (2010) - edited and translated by Brian Barry[11]
Meditations of a Zen Master (2012) - edited and translated by David Bannon [12]
Meditations of a Korean Monk (2012) - edited and translated by David Bannon[13]

References

^ Beop-Jeong
^ 법정 (法頂) Doosan Encyclopedia Beop Jeong
^ '무소유' 법정 스님 4주기 추모법회 열려 연합뉴스TV, 25 February 2014
^ 무소유의 수행자, 법정 스님 입적 Hankook Ilbo, 10 March 2014
^ 베스트셀러 20위 안에 11권 법정스님 책 세계일보 March 26, 2010
^ Beopjeong (2012). Meditations of a Zen Master. Translated by David Bannon. Bilingual Library.
^ 천주교-불교 종교 초월한 교감 확산 The Chosun Ilbo, February 27, 1998. Catholic-Buddhism Spreading communion beyond religion
^ "The Venerable Beopjeong: Profile". Gilsangsa. Retrieved 7 March 2017.
^ 법정스님 수필 무소유 Encyclopedia of Korean Culture
^ Beopjeong (2006). Shiva Ryu (ed.). May All Beings Be Happy: The Selected Dharma Sayings of Beop Jeong. Translated by Matty Wegehaupt. The Good Life. ISBN 8995757736.
^ Beopjeong (2010). The Sound of Water, the Sound of Wind. Translated by Brian Barry. Jain. ISBN 9780895818256.
^ Beopjeong (2012). Meditations of a Zen Master. Translated by David Bannon. Bilingual Library. ISBN 1300327405.
^ Beopjeong (2012). Meditations of a Korean Monk. Translated by David Bannon. Bilingual Library. ISBN 1105519201.

External links

Documentary: Beopjeong's Chair (2011), (법정스님의 의자), narrated by Choi Bool-am

성철스님

고용한 정원 — Thu, 11 May 2023 14:52:41 +0900

성철(性徹, 1912년 4월 6일 (음력 2월 19일) ~ 1993년 11월 4일)은 대한민국의 승려이다.

속명(俗名)은 이영주(李英柱)이고 아호는 퇴옹(退翁)이다.

대한민국의 선종을 대표할 정도로 전형(典型)이 될 만한 특징이 있는 승려이다.[1]

1912년 일제 강점기 조선 경상남도 산청 출생이며,

1993년 11월 4일 합천 해인사 퇴설당에서 입적하였다.

생애

서기 1912년 경상남도 산청군 단성면 묵곡리에서 태어났다. 1936년 해인사(海印寺)에서 동산(東山) 대종사(大宗師)에게 사미계(沙彌戒)를 받고 승려가 되었다. 1938년 운봉(雲峰)을 계사(戒師)로 보살계(菩薩戒) · 비구계(比丘戒)를 받았고 봉암사(鳳巖寺)에서 청담(靑潭)과 함께 수행하면서 불타(佛陀)답게 살자고 결사(結社)하는 등 새로운 선풍(禪風)을 고양(高揚)시켰다. 1967년 해인 총림(海印叢林) 초대 방장(方丈)이 되었고 1981년 대한불교조계종 제7대 종정(宗正)에 취임하였다. 세속에 거의 모습을 나타내지 않았고, 별장 조경터를 본인이 마음들어 하여 세워진 해운대 해월정사에서 장좌불와의 휴유증으로 요양하며 말년을 보낸다.[2] 1993년 11월 4일 세수 81세로 열반에 들었다.[1] 성철스님은 제자들의 부축을 받아 앉은 상태에서 친딸인 불필스님이 지켜보는 가운데 임종을 맞았으며 60년대초 통합종단출범 이후 처음인 7일장으로 장례식을 치렀다.[3] 한편, 출가하기 전에 혼인해서 다섯 살 터울의 딸이 두 명 있었으나[4] 큰딸(이도경)은 14살 되던 해에 세상을 떠났고 둘째 딸이 태어나기 직전인 1936년 출가를 하여 스님이 되었으며 이로 인해 둘째 딸(불필 스님)의 이름은 본인(성철 스님)의 아버지가 '수경'이라 지어줬고[5] 아버지(이상언)는 유학자 집안의 장남인 본인(성철 스님)이 출가하자 "집안 망했다"라 난리를 치기도 했으며[6] 세상을 떠나기 직전 "이놈들아 나는 성철 스님에게 간다!!"라고 고함을 지른 뒤 숨을 거두었으며[7] 아버지가 세상을 떠나기 2년 전 타계한 어머니(강상봉)는 죽기 전에 정식 출가는 안 했지만 머리를 깎고 장삼을 착용하며 생활하면서 "다시 태어나면 스님에 되겠다"고 말하며 여생을 마쳤고 본인(성철 스님)의 아내[8] 이덕명 여사는 남편과 외동딸(불필 스님)이 모두 출가한 뒤 시부모님도 세상을 떠난 후 딸 불필 스님의 은사인 인홍 스님의 권유로 출가하여 '일휴'란 법명을 받은 뒤 비구니로 삶을 마감하기도 했다.

교리적 견해

돈오점수를 반대하며 돈오돈수 주창

교리를 대상으로 한 성철의 견해는 저서인 《선문정로》(1981)에 잘 노정되어 있다.[1] 대한민국 선불교의 수행 전통으로 여겨온 지눌의 돈오점수(頓悟漸修)에 반대하여 돈오돈수(頓悟頓修)를 주창했다.[1] 그 후 현재까지 대한민국 불교 철학계의 돈 · 점 논쟁은 활발하게 이루어져 왔다.[1] 성철은 지행합일(知行合一) 단계의 지(知)만이 진정한 지(知)이고 지눌의 돈오점수는 실제(實際)이고 세부까지 포함한 현실을 좇지 않는 직접 지각하거나 체험할 수 없는 관념과 표상(表象)에 경도(傾倒)되어 실증성이 희박(稀薄)하게 조직된 이론에 근거한 지(知)일 뿐 참 지(知)가 아니라고 주장(主張)하였다.[1] 그러나 지눌과 성철은 가르침의 대상이 달랐으므로 시비(是非)를 가리기가 어렵다.[1] 지눌은 일반인에게 불교 교의를 풀어서 밝혔고 성철은 수행하는 승려에게 설법하였다.[1]

하지만, 향곡혜림(香谷慧林)과 서옹상순(西翁尚純)은 돈오돈수론자들이였다. 도림법전(道林法典)과 혜암성관(慧庵性觀) 또한 철저한 돈오돈수론자들이였다. 그리고 진제법원(真際法遠) 스님 또한 '돈오돈수는 오종(五宗) 가풍의 법칙입니다'라고 말한 바 있다. (보다 자세한 사항은 문광스님 著, 탄허학, 조계종출판사 출판, 제 4장의 현대 한국 선사상의 두 지평 p.186~p.189참고 바람.)

돈점논쟁은 관법(觀法)과 간화선 사이에서, 혹은 교종과 선종 사이에 우열을 가리는데 목적이 있는 것이 아니다. 만약 누군가 이것을 그렇게 이해했다면, 그것은 이 논쟁의 본질을 잘못 파악한 것이다. 돈오돈수론 주장은 선종에 속한 스님들이 제대로 선종을 하기 위한 노력이었을 뿐이다. 돈오돈수를 주장하는 것이 교종이나 관법을 무시하는 것으로 이어지지 않는 이유가 바로 여기에 있다. 원효스님 같은 분은 교학자였지만 현대 한국의 선사들 중 그 누구도 원효를 지해종도(知解宗徒)라고 부르지 않는다. 원효스님은 교(教)의 길을 철저하고 뛰어나게 걸어갔던 것이다. 그리고 성철스님의 돈오돈수론 주장도 선(禪)의 길을 본분사대로 걸어갔던 것 뿐인 것이다.

대처승에 반대하는 불교정화운동 지지

성철스님은 대처불교로 대변되는 근대불교를 청산하고 전통복고를 통해 현대불교의 새로운 길을 모색하겠다며 1947년 공주규약을 함께 제정한다.[9] 이것은 1954년 비구승들이 본격적으로 추진한 불교정화운동이었고[10] 만해스님은 전인적 풍모를 가진 인물로 사회참여를 통해 역사적 현장에 투신한 반면, 성철 스님은 철저히 세간사에 대해 불간섭의 자세로 오로지 깨달음을 얻겠다는 종교적 이상만으로 근현대라는 시공이 초래한 질곡에 휘말리지 않았다.[9]

산은 산이요, 물은 물이로다

중국 대륙에서 임제종(臨濟宗)을 개종(開宗)한 임제(臨濟)의 후예(後裔)인 선사(禪師) 유신(惟信)이 선종의 내밀(內密)한 특징인 소위 도교에서 영향받은 화광동진(和光同塵)을 교시(敎示)하려는 취지(趣旨)로 한 설법(說法)인,

“내가 삼십 년 전 참선하기 전에는 산은 산으로, 물은 물로 보았다가 나중에 선지식(善知識)을 친견(親見)하여 깨*침에 들어서서는 산은 산이 아니고 물은 물이 아니게 보았다. 지금 휴식처를 얻고 나니 옛날과 마찬가지로 산은 *다만 산이요, 물은 다만 물로 보인다. 그대들이여, 이 세 가지 견해가 같으냐? 다르냐? 이것을 가려내는 사람이 *있으면 나와 같은 경지에 있다고 인정하겠노라.”

중에서 "산은 산이요, 물은 물이로다"라는 고측(古則)을 성철이 원용(援用)하여 인상(印象)을 남기면서 일반인에게도 유명해졌다. “산은 산이요, 물은 물이로다.”라는 화두(話頭)는 최초에 미망(迷妄)하는 단계는 수도(修道)하기 이전 평범한 일상계(日常界)이나 수도를 이용해 득도(得道)하면 체험하는 평범한 일상을 완벽히 초월한 세계는 일상에서 하는 착각(錯覺)이 적멸(寂滅)한 상태이나 진정하게 득도하려면 거기서 진일보(進一步)해 평범한 세계로 회귀하여야 한다. 화광동진을 이용해 다시 돌아온 그 세계는 외양상으로는 최초처럼 속(俗)되고 평범한 단계와 같으나 내면상으로는 처음과는 차원이 판이(判異)하다. 이는 나선형(螺旋形) 성격을 띤 회귀를 뜻한다. 이로 보아 임제(臨濟)의 후예(後裔)인 선사(禪師) 유신(惟信)이 설법한 이 “산은 산이요, 물은 물이로다.”라는 공안(公案)은 노자의 화광동진(和光同塵) 사상을 그대로 해설한 교시(敎示)이다. 재언하면, 수도자(修道者)가 작고 대수롭지 않게 득도(得道)했을 때는 물이 산으로, 산은 물인 듯 혼란(混亂)스럽지만, 득도하는 규모가 확대되면 물은 물로, 산은 산으로 보게 된다. 외부 세계나 자연을 주관의 작용과는 독립하여 존재한다고 관망(觀望)하는 태도를 획득한다는 뜻이다.

깨달음

1936년 24세에 출가한 성철스님(1912년-1993)은 승납 3년만인 1940년 28세 때, 대구 동화사 금당선원에서 하안거 중 문득 대오했다. 그러나 75대 경허조사(1849-1912)를 76대 만공조사(1871-1946)가 이었다고 하던 시절이어서, 정혜사의 만공스님을 찾아갔는데, 너무나 쉽게 깨달음을 인가하고 있었기 때문에, 실망을 하여 인가를 신청하지 않았다. 이후에 76대 만공조사를 77대 전강조사(1898-1975)가 이었다고 했는데, 전강조사에게도 인가를 신청하지 않았다.

불교에서는 다른 깨달은 선지식으로부터의 인가는 중요하게 다루지 않아도, 당대 조사스님의 인가는 매우 중요하게 여긴다. 당시 불교 관행이, 별로 큰 깨달음도 아닌데 쉽게 인가를 해주는 관행이었다고 하더라도, 조사의 인가는 반드시 받았어야 했다.

역대 최장 기록의 장좌불와

성철스님의 열반 시기에 대중들에게 갑자기 유명해진 불교 수행용어가 장좌불와인데, 달마대사의 소림사 면벽 9년의 면벽은 이와 비슷하나 난이도에서 장좌불와에 못미친다.[11] 현재 성철스님보다 오래 장좌불와를 했다는 기록은 보이지 않으며, 기록은 10년, 일부에서는 8년이라고 주장하는 경우도 있다.[11] 이 극한의 수행 때문에 해인사에서 병원 치료도 하게 되고 대단히 힘들게 대중들과의 생활도 하게 된다.[2]

주요 경력

前 대한불교 조계종 종정

이외 이력

前 대한민국 문화공보부 등록종단장(1987년 2월 22일 ~ 1988년 2월 29일)

저작

《육조단경(六組檀經)》, 《전등록(傳燈錄)》 등 선문(禪門)의 조사(祖師) 어록을 중심으로 많은 법어를 이루었는데 관념의 도그마(dogma)[주해 1]에 빠지지 말 것과 견성(見性)의 체험을 강조하였다. 1993년 해인사에서 입적(入寂)하였다. 저서로 《돈오입도요문강설》(1986) 등이 있다.

Ajahn Brahm

고용한 정원 — Thu, 11 May 2023 14:49:54 +0900

Phra Visuddhisamvarathera AM (Thai: พระวิสุทธิสังวรเถร), known as Ajahn Brahmavaṃso, or simply Ajahn Brahm (born Peter Betts[1] on 7 August 1951), is a British-born Theravada Buddhist monk. Currently, Ajahn Brahm is the abbot of Bodhinyana Monastery in Serpentine, Western Australia; Spiritual Adviser to the Buddhist Society of Victoria; Spiritual Adviser to the Buddhist Society of South Australia; Spiritual Patron of the Buddhist Fellowship in Singapore; Patron of the Brahm Centre in Singapore; Spiritual Adviser to the Anukampa Bhikkhuni Project in the UK; and Spiritual Director of the Buddhist Society of Western Australia (BSWA). He returned to the office on 22 April 2018 after briefly resigning in March, following a contentious vote by members of the BSWA during their annual general meeting.[2]

Early life

Peter Betts was born in London.[1] He came from a working-class background and went to Latymer Upper School. He won a scholarship to study theoretical physics [3] at Emmanuel College, University of Cambridge in the late 1960s.[4] After graduation, he taught mathematics at a high school in Devon for one year before travelling to Thailand to become a monk and train with Ajahn Chah Bodhinyana Mahathera.[1] Brahm was ordained in Bangkok at the age of twenty-three by Somdet Kiaw, the abbot of Wat Saket. He subsequently spent nine years studying and training in the forest meditation tradition under Ajahn Chah.

Bodhinyana Monastery

After practicing for nine years as a monk, Ajahn Brahm was sent to Perth by Ajahn Chah in 1983 to assist Ajahn Jagaro in teaching duties.[5] Initially, they both lived in an old house on Magnolia Street, in the suburb of North Perth, but in late 1983, they purchased 97 acres (393,000 m²) of rural and forested land in the hills of Serpentine, south of Perth.[1] The land was to become Bodhinyana Monastery (named after their teacher, Ajahn Chah Bodhinyana). Bodhinyana was to become the first dedicated Buddhist monastery of the Thai Theravada lineage in the Southern Hemisphere and is today the largest community of Buddhist monks in Australia.[citation needed] Initially, there were no buildings on the land and as there were only a few Buddhists in Perth at this time, and little funding, the monks themselves began building to save money. Ajahn Brahm learnt plumbing and bricklaying and built many of the current buildings himself.

Ajahn Brahm

In 1994, Ajahn Jagaro took a sabbatical leave from Western Australia and disrobed a year later. Left in charge, Ajahn Brahm took on the role and was soon being invited to provide his teachings in other parts of Australia and Southeast Asia. He has been a speaker at the International Buddhist Summit in Phnom Penh in 2002 and at three Global Conferences on Buddhism.[citation needed] He also dedicates time and attention to the sick and dying, those in prison or ill with cancer, people wanting to learn to meditate, and also to his Sangha of monks at Bodhinyana.[citation needed] Ajahn Brahm has also been influential in establishing Dhammasara Nuns' Monastery at Gidgegannup in the hills northeast of Perth to be a wholly independent monastery, which is jointly administered by Ayya Nirodha and Venerable Hasapañña.[citation needed]

Bhikkhuni ordination

On 22 October 2009, Ajahn Brahm, along with Bhante Sujato, facilitated an ordination ceremony for bhikkhunis, where four female Buddhists, Venerable Ajahn Vayama, and Venerables Nirodha, Seri, and Hasapañña, were ordained into the Western Theravada Bhikkhuni Sangha, with Venerable Tathālokā Bhikkhunī serving as Bhikkhunī Preceptor.[6][7] The ordination ceremony took place at Ajahn Brahm's Bodhinyana Monastery at Serpentine, Australia. Although bhikkhuni[8] ordinations had taken place in California and Sri Lanka, this was the first in the Thai Forest Tradition and proved highly controversial in Thailand. There is no consensus in the wider tradition that bhikkhuni ordinations could be valid, having last been performed in Thailand over 1,000 years ago, though the matter has been under active discussion for some time. Ajahn Brahm claims that there is no valid historical basis for denying ordination to bhikkunis.[citation needed]

I thought too when I was a young monk in Thailand that the problem was a legal problem, that the bhikkhuni order couldn't be revived. But having investigated and studied, I've found out that many of the obstacles we thought were there aren't there at all. Someone like Bhikkhu Bodhi [a respected Theravada scholar–monk] has researched the Pali Vinaya and his paper is one of the most eloquent I've seen—fair, balanced, comes out on the side of "It's possible, why don't we do this?"[9]

For his actions of 22 October 2009, on 1 November 2009, at a meeting of senior members of the Thai forest monastic Sangha in the Ajahn Chah lineage, held at Wat Pah Pong, Ubon Ratchathani, Brahm was removed from the Ajahn Chah Forest Sangha lineage and is no longer associated with the main monastery in Thailand, Wat Pah Pong, nor with any of the other Western Forest Sangha branch monasteries of the Ajahn Chah tradition.[10]

Anukampa Bhikkhuni Project

In October 2015, Ajahn Brahm asked Venerable Candā of Dhammasara Nun's Monastery, Perth, to take steps towards establishing a monastery in the UK. In response to this, Anukampa Bhikkhuni Project was born. Anukampa Bhikkhuni Project aims to promote the teachings and practices of early Buddhism by establishing a Bhikkhuni presence in the UK. Its long-term aspiration is to develop a monastery with a harmonious and meditative atmosphere, for women who wish to train towards full ordination.[11][12]

"The reason I'm going over to the UK is [because] . . . I have a sense of responsibility to the place of my birth. It was a very wonderful society and inculcated many values in me. One of those values was fairness, where people are given equity. I came from a poor background, it was disadvantaged, but because of the fairness of the system I could, through the means of scholarships, go to a very good high school, and from [there] to a very good university. I was given a chance, and I see in the UK right now, women in Theravada Buddhism are not given a chance; because of their birth they are not permitted to take full ordination in Theravada Buddhism, which, personally, because of my upbringing, [I think] is unacceptable. And also because of my upbringing, I always say, 'Don't just complain about things, do something!' And it happens at this time in my monastic life that I am able to do things. I have many disciples and some of those disciples want to give some of their money for a good cause. So the next project . . . is to try and get a nice start for the bhikkhuni sangha in the UK . . . [where] a good nun like Bhikkhuni Candā has a place to stay and a place to teach. At the moment she has nowhere, really, absolutely nowhere to stay! So the requisite of lodgings is primary.

"The main guidance [for bhikkhunis] . . . is the Buddha—you take refuge in the Buddha, the Dhamma, and the sangha [as a whole] . . . [in] the guidelines of simplicity, frugality, kindness, compassion, and mindfulness, [which] are part of the Vinaya training. When it comes to other training, I'll say in this interview, I have full confidence in Venerable Candā to be a leader. She doesn't have that confidence in herself yet, but I do. It's a case of, you take these people, put them in the deep end of the water, and my goodness, they swim! And no one is more surprised than they themselves that they can keep their heads above water.

"This monastery is going to happen . . . it's just a matter of time. . . . [The bhikkhuni sangha] is the fourth leg of the chair of Buddhism, this is what the Buddha kept on saying. After he became enlightened under the banyan tree, Mara came to him and said, 'Okay, you're enlightened, I admit it. Now don't go teaching, it's just too burdensome. Just enter parinibbana now, just disappear'. The Buddha said, 'No, I will not enter parinibbana. I will not leave this life until I have established the bhikkhu sangha, bhikkhuni sangha, laymen, and laywomen Buddhists: the four pillars of Buddhism'. Forty-five years later, at the Capala Shrine, Mara came again and said, 'You've done it! There are lots and lots of bhikkhunis enlightened, lots of bhikkhus enlightened, great laymen and laywomen Buddhists . . . so keep your promise', and [the Buddha] said, 'Okay, in three months, I'll enter parinibbana'.

What those two passages from the suttas demonstrate is that it was the Buddha's mission; it was why he taught—to establish those four pillars of the sangha. We have lost one, so every Buddhist who has faith in the Buddha should actually help the Buddha re-establish the bhikkhuni sangha. It was his mission, [but] because of history his mission has been thwarted".[13]

LGB support

Ajahn Brahm has openly spoken about his support towards same-sex marriage. At a conference in Singapore in 2014, he said he was very proud to have been able to perform a same-sex marriage blessing for a couple in Norway, and stressed that Buddhist teachings do not discriminate on the basis of sexual orientation.[14][15]

Rohingya crisis

In 2015, during the Rohingya refugee crisis, the Buddhist Society of Western Australia donated money to support displaced orphans in Bangladesh. Speaking at the ceremony, Ajahn Brahm said:

No matter what race or religion you are, we always look after one another. All religions are brothers and sisters, so we care for one another. So may violence and mistrust disappear and kindness and love and helping one another prevail.[16]

Kindfulness

In an effort to reclaim the "mindfulness" practice from being overrun by secular industries and a recent claim that it is not owned by Buddhism, Ajahn Brahm clarifies that mindfulness is a practice within the rest of the supporting factors of Buddhism (the Noble Eightfold Path: right view, right motivation, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right endeavor, right mindfulness, and right stillness). According to the monk, mindfulness is part of a great training called Buddhism, and to actually take away mindfulness from Buddhism is unhelpful, inaccurate, and deceiving—mindfulness is a cultural heritage of Buddhism. Practicing mindfulness without wisdom and compassion is not enough. Therefore, drawing from the Pāli Suttas,[17] Ajahn Brahm created the term "Kindfulness", meaning mindfulness combined with wisdom and compassion—mindfulness combined with knowing the ethical and moral compassionate consequences of the reactions to what is happening (a.k.a. satisampajañña).[18]

Achievements

Whilst still a junior monk, Ajahn Brahm was asked to undertake the compilation of an English-language guide to the Buddhist monastic code—the vinaya [19]—which later became the basis for monastic discipline in many Theravadan monasteries in Western countries. Currently, Brahm is the Abbot of Bodhinyana Monastery in Serpentine, Western Australia,[20] the Spiritual Director of the Buddhist Society of Western Australia, Spiritual Adviser to the Buddhist Society of Victoria, Spiritual Adviser to the Buddhist Society of South Australia, Spiritual Patron of the Buddhist Fellowship in Singapore and most recently, Spiritual Adviser to the Anukampa Bhikkhuni Project in the UK.[21]

In October 2004, Ajahn Brahm was awarded the John Curtin medal for his vision, leadership, and service to the Australian community, by Curtin University.

Under the auspices of the Diamond Jubilee of King Rama IX, Bhumibol Adulyadej, in June 2006, Ajahn Brahm was given the title of Phra Visuddhisamvarathera,[22] a Royal Grade Thai ecclesiastical title once held by Ajahn Liem, the current abbot of Wat Nong Pah Pong.[citation needed]

On 5 September 2019, Ajahn Brahm was awarded the Order of Australia, General Division medal, for services to Buddhism and gender equality. The investiture was performed at Government House Western Australia.[23]

Publications

Opening the Door of Your Heart: and Other Buddhist Tales of Happiness. Also published as Who Ordered This Truckload of Dung?: Inspiring Stories for Welcoming Life's Difficulties. Wisdom Publications. ISBN 978-0861712786 (2005)
Mindfulness, Bliss, and Beyond: A Meditator's Handbook. Wisdom Publications. ISBN 0-86171-275-7 (2006)
The Art of Disappearing: Buddha's Path to Lasting Joy. Wisdom Publications. ISBN 0-86171-668-X (2011)
Don't Worry, Be Grumpy: Inspiring Stories for Making the Most of Each Moment. Also published as Good? Bad? Who Knows?. Wisdom Publications. ISBN 978-1614291671 (2014)
Kindfulness. Wisdom Publications. ISBN 978-1614291992 (2016)
Bear Awareness: Questions and Answers on Taming Your Wild Mind. Wisdom Publications. ISBN 978-1614292562 (2017)
Falling Is Flying: The Dharma of Facing Adversity – with Guo Jun. Wisdom Publications. ISBN 978-1614294252 (2019)

Publications by BPS

In the Presence of Nibbana (BL149)
Ending of Things (BL153)
Walking Meditation: The Expositions on Walking Meditation (WH464) (with Ajahn Nyanadhammo and Dharma Dorje)
Opening the Door of Your Heart (BP619s)

References

^ Jump up to:a b c d "I Kidnapped a Monk!". Buddhistdoor Global. Retrieved 20 March 2018.
^ Bellamy, Drew (24 March 2018). "Ajahn Brahm Resigns". Buddhist Society of Western Australia. Retrieved 25 March 2018.
^ "Buddhism, the only real science". Daily News. Archived from the original on 28 July 2012. Retrieved 15 May 2013.
^ Chan, Dunstan (2013). Sound and Silence. TraffordSG. p. 189. ISBN 9781466998759.
^ Wettimuny, Samantha (21 January 2007). "Sharing the Dhamma in his own unique style". Sunday Times (Sri Lanka). 41 (34). ISSN 1391-0531.
^ "History in the Making?". Go Beyond Words: Wisdom Publications blog. 3 November 2009. Retrieved 15 May 2013.
^ Thanissara. "The Time Has Come - Lion's Roar". Retrieved 13 February 2022.
^ Zoltnick & McCarthy. "2600 Year Hourney History of Bhikkhunis". Present Magazine. Alliance for Bhikkhunis. Retrieved 29 December 2017.
^ "An Interview with Ajahn Brahm". Alliance for Bhikkhunis. Archived from the original on 26 July 2010. Retrieved 15 May 2013.
^ "news". Forestsangha.org. Archived from the original on 12 January 2010. Retrieved 24 January 2010.
^ "Anukampa Bhikkhuni Project – Bringing the Bhikkhuni Sangha to the UK. ~ Oxford Ajahn Brahm Monastery ~".
^ "Buddhistdoor Article".
^ "Anukampa Bhikkhuni Project Nun's Monastery Set to Become a Reality".
^ "Buddhist abbot Ajahn Brahm in Singapore: 'Unacceptable' that religion has been so cruel to LGBTIs". Gay Star News. 26 July 2014.
^ Perspectives, American Buddhist (30 July 2014). "Buddhist abbot Ajahn Brahm says that it is 'Unacceptable' that religion has been so cruel to LGBTIQs".
^ "Perth Community Donates to Rohingya Refugees in Bangladesh". bswa.org. Retrieved 1 October 2021.
^ "SuttaCentral". SuttaCentral.
^ Interview with Ajahn Brahm 6 November 2017 Tough Questions to Ajahn Brahm
^ [1] "Pāli/Theravada Vinaya"
^ "Operated by the Buddhist Society of Western Australia". bodhinyana.org.au. Archived from the original on 3 October 2011. Retrieved 1 October 2011.
^ "About Us – Anukampa Bhikkhuni Project".
^ "ราชกิจจานุเบกษา เล่ม 123 ตอนที่ 15 ข" (PDF). สำนักนายกรัฐมนตรี. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 26 October 2016.
^ Perpitch, Nicolas (10 June 2019). "Queens Birthday Honours". ABC News.

Zen

고용한 정원 — Thu, 11 May 2023 14:34:13 +0900

Zen (Chinese: 禪; pinyin: Chán; Japanese: 禅, romanized: zen; Korean: 선, romanized: Seon; Vietnamese: Thiền) is a school of Mahayana Buddhism that originated in China during the Tang dynasty, known as the Chan School (Chánzong 禪宗), and later developed into various sub-schools and branches. From China, Chán spread south to Vietnam and became Vietnamese Thiền, northeast to Korea to become Seon Buddhism, and east to Japan, becoming Japanese Zen.[1]

The term Zen is derived from the Japanese pronunciation of the Middle Chinese word 禪 (chán), an abbreviation of 禪那 (chánnà), which is a Chinese transliteration of the Sanskrit word ध्यान dhyāna ("meditation").[note 1] Zen emphasizes rigorous self-restraint, meditation-practice and the subsequent insight into nature of mind (見性, Ch. jiànxìng, Jp. kensho, "perceiving the true nature") and nature of things (without arrogance or egotism), and the personal expression of this insight in daily life, especially for the benefit of others.[3][4] As such, it de-emphasizes knowledge alone of sutras and doctrine,[5][6] and favors direct understanding through spiritual practice and interaction with an accomplished teacher[7] or Master.

Zen teaching draws from numerous sources of Sarvastivada meditation practice and Mahāyāna thought, especially Yogachara, the Tathāgatagarbha sūtras, the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra, and the Huayan school, with their emphasis on Buddha-nature, totality, and the Bodhisattva-ideal.[8][9] The Prajñāpāramitā literature,[10] as well as Madhyamaka thought, have also been influential in the shaping of the apophatic and sometimes iconoclastic nature of Zen rhetoric.[11]

Furthermore, the Chan School was also influenced by Taoist philosophy, especially Neo-Daoist thought.[12]

Etymology

The word Zen is derived from the Japanese pronunciation (kana: ぜん) of the Middle Chinese word 禪 (Middle Chinese: [dʑian]; pinyin: Chán), which in turn is derived from the Sanskrit word dhyāna (ध्यान),[2] which can be approximately translated as "contemplation", "absorption", or "meditative state".[13]

The actual Chinese term for the "Zen school" is 禪宗 (pinyin: Chánzōng), while "Chan" just refers to the practice of meditation itself (Chinese: 習禪; pinyin: xíchán) or the study of meditation (Chinese: 禪學; pinyin: chánxué) though it is often used as an abbreviated form of Chánzong.[14]

"Zen" is traditionally a proper noun as it usually describes a particular Buddhist sect. In more recent times, the lowercase "zen" is used when discussing the philosophy and was officially added to the Merriam-Webster dictionary in 2018.[15]

Practice

Dhyāna

Chinese Buddhism

The practice of Buddhist meditation first entered China through the translations of An Shigao (fl. c. 148–180 CE), and Kumārajīva (334–413 CE), who both translated Dhyāna sutras, which were influential early meditation texts mostly based on the Yogacara (yoga praxis) teachings of the Kashmiri Sarvāstivāda circa 1st–4th centuries CE.[17] Among the most influential early Chinese meditation texts include the Anban Shouyi Jing (安般守意經, Sutra on ānāpānasmṛti), the Zuochan Sanmei Jing (坐禪三昧經，Sutra of sitting dhyāna samādhi) and the Damoduoluo Chan Jing (達摩多羅禪經,[18] Dharmatrata dhyāna sutra).[19] These early Chinese meditation works continued to exert influence on Zen practice well into the modern era. For example, the 18th century Rinzai Zen master Tōrei Enji wrote a commentary on the Damoduoluo Chan Jing and used the Zuochan Sanmei Jing as source in the writing of this commentary. Tōrei believed that the Damoduoluo Chan Jing had been authored by Bodhidharma.[20]

While dhyāna in a strict sense refers to the four dhyānas, in Chinese Buddhism, dhyāna may refer to various kinds of meditation techniques and their preparatory practices, which are necessary to practice dhyāna.[21] The five main types of meditation in the Dhyāna sutras are ānāpānasmṛti (mindfulness of breathing); paṭikūlamanasikāra meditation (mindfulness of the impurities of the body); maitrī meditation (loving-kindness); the contemplation on the twelve links of pratītyasamutpāda; and contemplation on the Buddha.[22] According to the modern Chan master Sheng Yen, these practices are termed the "five methods for stilling or pacifying the mind" and serve to focus and purify the mind, and support the development of the stages of dhyana.[23] Chan also shares the practice of the four foundations of mindfulness and the Three Gates of Liberation (emptyness or śūnyatā, signlessness or animitta, and wishlessness or apraṇihita) with early Buddhism and classic Mahayana.[24]

Pointing to the nature of the mind

According to Charles Luk, in the earliest traditions of Chán, there was no fixed method or formula for teaching meditation, and all instructions were simply heuristic methods, to point to the true nature of the mind, also known as Buddha-nature.[25] According to Luk, this method is referred to as the "Mind Dharma", and exemplified in the story (in the Flower Sermon) of Śākyamuni Buddha holding up a flower silently, and Mahākāśyapa smiling as he understood.[25] A traditional formula of this is, "Chán points directly to the human mind, to enable people to see their true nature and become buddhas."[26]

Observing the mind

According to John McRae, "one of the most important issues in the development of early Ch'an doctrine is the rejection of traditional meditation techniques," that is, gradual self-perfection and the practices of contemplation on the body impurities and the four foundations of mindfulness.[27] According to John R. McRae the "first explicit statement of the sudden and direct approach that was to become the hallmark of Ch'an religious practice" is associated with the East Mountain School.[28] It is a method named "Maintaining the one without wavering" (shou-i pu i, 守一不移),[28] the one being the nature of mind, which is equated with Buddha-nature.[29] According to Sharf, in this practice, one turns the attention from the objects of experience, to the nature of mind, the perceiving subject itself, which is equated with Buddha-nature.[30] According to McRae, this type of meditation resembles the methods of "virtually all schools of Mahāyāna Buddhism," but differs in that "no preparatory requirements, no moral prerequisites or preliminary exercises are given," and is "without steps or gradations. One concentrates, understands, and is enlightened, all in one undifferentiated practice."[28][note 2] Sharf notes that the notion of "Mind" came to be criticised by radical subitists, and was replaced by "No Mind," to avoid any reifications.[32][note 3]

Meditation manuals

Early Chan texts also teach forms of meditation that are unique to Mahāyāna Buddhism, for example, the Treatise on the Essentials of Cultivating the Mind, which depicts the teachings of the 7th-century East Mountain school teaches a visualization of a sun disk, similar to that taught in the Sutra of the Contemplation of the Buddha Amitáyus.[34]

Later Chinese Buddhists developed their own meditation manuals and texts, one of the most influential being the works of the Tiantai patriarch, Zhiyi. His works seemed to have exerted some influence on the earliest meditation manuals of the Chán school proper, an early work being the widely imitated and influential Tso-chan-i (Principles of sitting meditation, c. 11th century), which doesn't outline a vipassana practice which leads to wisdom (prajña), but only recommends practicing samadhi which will lead to the discovery of inherent wisdom already present in the mind.[35]

Common contemporary meditation forms

The meditation hall (Jp. zendō, Ch. chántáng) of Dai Bosatsu Zendo Kongo-Ji

Mindfulness of breathing

Venerable Hsuan Hua meditating in the lotus position, Hong Kong, 1953

During sitting meditation (坐禅, Ch. zuòchán, Jp. zazen, Ko. jwaseon), practitioners usually assume a position such as the lotus position, half-lotus, Burmese, or seiza, often using the dhyāna mudrā. Often, a square or round cushion placed on a padded mat is used to sit on; in some other cases, a chair may be used.

To regulate the mind, Zen students are often directed towards counting breaths. Either both exhalations and inhalations are counted, or one of them only. The count can be up to ten, and then this process is repeated until the mind is calmed.[36] Zen teachers like Omori Sogen teach a series of long and deep exhalations and inhalations as a way to prepare for regular breath meditation.[37] Attention is usually placed on the energy center (dantian) below the navel.[38] Zen teachers often promote diaphragmatic breathing, stating that the breath must come from the lower abdomen (known as hara or tanden in Japanese), and that this part of the body should expand forward slightly as one breathes.[39] Over time the breathing should become smoother, deeper and slower.[40] When the counting becomes an encumbrance, the practice of simply following the natural rhythm of breathing with concentrated attention is recommended.[41][42]

Silent Illumination and shikantaza

A common form of sitting meditation is called "Silent illumination" (Ch. mòzhào, Jp. mokushō). This practice was traditionally promoted by the Caodong school of Chinese Chan and is associated with Hongzhi Zhengjue (1091—1157) who wrote various works on the practice.[43] This method derives from the Indian Buddhist practice of the union (Skt. yuganaddha) of śamatha and vipaśyanā.[44]

In Hongzhi's practice of "nondual objectless meditation" the mediator strives to be aware of the totality of phenomena instead of focusing on a single object, without any interference, conceptualizing, grasping, goal seeking, or subject-object duality.[45]

This practice is also popular in the major schools of Japanese Zen, but especially Sōtō, where it is more widely known as Shikantaza (Ch. zhǐguǎn dǎzuò, "Just sitting"). Considerable textual, philosophical, and phenomenological justification of the practice can be found throughout the work of the Japanese Sōtō Zen thinker Dōgen, especially in his Shōbōgenzō, for example in the "Principles of Zazen"[46] and the "Universally Recommended Instructions for Zazen".[47] While the Japanese and the Chinese forms are similar, they are distinct approaches.[48]

Hua Tou and Kōan contemplation

Main article: Kōan

Calligraphy of "Mu" (Hanyu Pinyin: wú) by Torei Enji. It figures in the famous Zhaozhou's dog kōan

During the Tang dynasty, gōng'àn (Jp. kōan) literature became popular. Literally meaning "public case", they were stories or dialogues, describing teachings and interactions between Zen masters and their students. These anecdotes give a demonstration of the master's insight. Kōan are meant to illustrate the non-conceptual insight (prajña) that the Buddhist teachings point to. During the Sòng dynasty, a new meditation method was popularized by figures such as Dahui, which was called kanhua chan ("observing the phrase" meditation), which referred to contemplation on a single word or phrase (called the huatou, "critical phrase") of a gōng'àn.[49] In Chinese Chan and Korean Seon, this practice of "observing the huatou" (hwadu in Korean) is a widely practiced method.[50] It was taught by the influential Seon master Chinul (1158–1210), and modern Chinese masters like Sheng Yen and Xuyun. Yet, while Dahui famously criticised "silent illumination,"[51][52] he nevertheless "did not completely condemn quiet-sitting; in fact, he seems to have recommended it, at least to his monastic disciples."[51]

In the Japanese Rinzai school, kōan introspection developed its own formalized style, with a standardized curriculum of kōans, which must be studied and "passed" in sequence. This process includes standardized "checking questions" (sassho) and common sets of "capping phrases" (jakugo) or poetry citations that are memorized by students as answers.[53] The Zen student's mastery of a given kōan is presented to the teacher in a private interview (referred to in Japanese as dokusan, daisan, or sanzen). While there is no unique answer to a kōan, practitioners are expected to demonstrate their spiritual understanding through their responses. The teacher may approve or disapprove of the answer and guide the student in the right direction. The interaction with a teacher is central in Zen, but makes Zen practice also vulnerable to misunderstanding and exploitation.[54] Kōan-inquiry may be practiced during zazen (sitting meditation), kinhin (walking meditation), and throughout all the activities of daily life. The goal of the practice is often termed kensho (seeing one's true nature), and is to be followed by further practice to attain a natural, effortless, down-to-earth state of being, the "ultimate liberation", "knowing without any kind of defilement".[55]

Kōan practice is particularly emphasized in Rinzai, but it also occurs in other schools or branches of Zen depending on the teaching line.[56]

Nianfo chan

Nianfo (Jp. nembutsu, from Skt. buddhānusmṛti "recollection of the Buddha") refers to the recitation of the Buddha's name, in most cases the Buddha Amitabha. In Chinese Chan, the Pure Land practice of nianfo based on the phrase Nāmó Āmítuófó (Homage to Amitabha) is a widely practiced form of Zen meditation which came to be known as "Nianfo Chan" (念佛禪). Nianfo was practiced and taught by early Chan masters, like Daoxin (580-651), who taught that one should "bind the mind to one buddha and exclusively invoke his name".[57] The practice is also taught in Shenxiu's Kuan-hsin lun (觀心論).[57]

The Ch’uan fa-pao chi (傳法寶紀, Taisho # 2838, ca. 713), one of the earliest Chan histories, also shows this practice was widespread in early Chan:

Coming to the generation of [Hung-]jen, [Fa-]ju and Ta-tung, the dharma-door was wide open to followers, regardless of their capacities. All immediately invoked the name of the Buddha so as to purify the mind.[57]

Evidence for the practice of nianfo chan can also be found in Changlu Zongze's (died c. 1107) Chanyuan qinggui (The Rules of Purity in the Chan Monastery), perhaps the most influential Ch’an monastic code in East Asia.[57]

Nianfo continued to be taught as a form of Chan meditation by later Chinese figures such as Yongming Yanshou, Zhongfen Mingben, and Tianru Weize. During the late Ming, the tradition of Nianfo Chan meditation was continued by figures such as Yunqi Zhuhong and Hanshan Deqing.[58] Chan figures like Yongming Yanshou generally advocated a view called “mind-only Pure Land” (wei-hsin ching-t’u), which held that the Buddha and the Pure Land are just mind.[57]

This practice, as well as its adaptation into the "nembutsu kōan" was also used by the Japanese Ōbaku school of Zen. Nianfo chan is also practiced in Vietnamese Thien.

Bodhisattva virtues and vows

Victoria Zen Centre Jukai ceremony, January 2009

Since Zen is a form of Mahayana Buddhism, it is grounded on the schema of the bodhisattva path, which is based on the practice of the "transcendent virtues" or "perfections" (Skt. pāramitā, Ch. bōluómì, Jp. baramitsu) as well as the taking of the bodhisattva vows.[59][60] The most widely used list of six virtues is: generosity, moral training (incl. five precepts), patient endurance, energy or effort, meditation (dhyana), wisdom. An important source for these teachings is the Avatamsaka sutra, which also outlines the grounds (bhumis) or levels of the bodhisattva path.[61] The pāramitās are mentioned in early Chan works such as Bodhidharma's Two entrances and four practices and are seen as an important part of gradual cultivation (jianxiu) by later Chan figures like Zongmi.[62][63]

An important element of this practice is the formal and ceremonial taking of refuge in the three jewels, bodhisattva vows and precepts. Various sets of precepts are taken in Zen including the five precepts, "ten essential precepts", and the sixteen bodhisattva precepts.[64][65][66][67] This is commonly done in an initiation ritual (Ch. shòu jiè, Jp. Jukai, Ko. sugye, "receiving the precepts"), which is also undertaken by lay followers and marks a layperson as a formal Buddhist.[68]

The Chinese Buddhist practice of fasting (zhai), especially during the uposatha days (Ch. zhairi, "days of fasting") can also be an element of Chan training.[69] Chan masters may go on extended absolute fasts, as exemplified by master Hsuan Hua's 35 day fast, which he undertook during the Cuban missile crisis for the generation of merit.[70]

Physical cultivation

Two grandmasters of the Shaolin Temple of Chinese Chan, Shi DeRu and Shi DeYang

Traditional martial arts, like Japanese archery, other forms of Japanese budō and Chinese martial arts (gōngfu) have also been seen as forms of zen praxis. This tradition goes back to the influential Shaolin Monastery in Henan, which developed the first institutionalized form of gōngfu.[71] By the late Ming, Shaolin gōngfu was very popular and widespread, as evidenced by mentions in various forms of Ming literature (featuring staff wielding fighting monks like Sun Wukong) and historical sources, which also speak of Shaolin's impressive monastic army that rendered military service to the state in return for patronage.[72] These Shaolin practices, which began to develop around the 12th century, were also traditionally seen as a form of Chan Buddhist inner cultivation (today called wuchan, "martial chan"). The Shaolin arts also made use of Taoist physical exercises (taoyin) breathing and energy cultivation (qìgōng) practices.[73] They were seen as therapeutic practices, which improved "internal strength" (neili), health and longevity (lit. "nourishing life" yangsheng), as well as means to spiritual liberation.[74]

The influence of these Taoist practices can be seen in the work of Wang Zuyuan (ca. 1820–after 1882), a scholar and minor bureaucrat who studied at Shaolin. Wang's Illustrated Exposition of Internal Techniques (Neigong tushuo) shows how Shaolin exercises were drawn from Taoist methods like those of the Yi jin jing and Eight pieces of brocade, possibly influenced by the Ming dynasty's spirit of religious syncretism.[75] According to the modern Chan master Sheng Yen, Chinese Buddhism has adopted internal cultivation exercises from the Shaolin tradition as ways to "harmonize the body and develop concentration in the midst of activity." This is because, "techniques for harmonizing the vital energy are powerful assistants to the cultivation of samadhi and spiritual insight."[76] Korean Seon also has developed a similar form of active physical training, termed Sunmudo.

Bows and quivers at Engaku-ji temple, the temple also has a Dōjō for the practice of Kyūdō and the Zen priests practice this art here.[77]

In Japan, the classic combat arts (budō) and zen practice have been in contact since the embrace of Rinzai Zen by the Hōjō clan in the 13th century, who applied zen discipline to their martial practice.[78] One influential figure in this relationship was the Rinzai priest Takuan Sōhō who was well known for his writings on zen and budō addressed to the samurai class (especially his The Unfettered Mind) .[79]

The Rinzai school also adopted certain Chinese practices which work with qi (which are also common in Taoism). They were introduced by Hakuin (1686–1769) who learned various techniques from a hermit named Hakuyu who helped Hakuin cure his "Zen sickness" (a condition of physical and mental exhaustion).[80] These energetic practices, known as naikan, are based on focusing the mind and one's vital energy (ki) on the tanden (a spot slightly below the navel).[81][82]

The arts

Hakuin Ekaku, Hotei in a Boat, Yale University Art Gallery

The kare-sansui (dry landscape) zen garden at Ryōan-ji

Certain arts such as painting, calligraphy, poetry, gardening, flower arrangement, tea ceremony and others have also been used as part of zen training and practice. Classical Chinese arts like brush painting and calligraphy were used by Chan monk painters such as Guanxiu and Muqi Fachang to communicate their spiritual understanding in unique ways to their students.[83] Zen paintings are sometimes termed zenga in Japanese.[84] Hakuin is one Japanese Zen master who was known to create a large corpus of unique sumi-e (ink and wash paintings) and Japanese calligraphy to communicate zen in a visual way. His work and that of his disciples were widely influential in Japanese Zen.[85] Another example of Zen arts can be seen in the short lived Fuke sect of Japanese Zen, which practiced a unique form of "blowing zen" (suizen) by playing the shakuhachi bamboo flute.

Intensive group practice

Intensive group meditation may be practiced by serious Zen practitioners. In the Japanese language, this practice is called sesshin. While the daily routine may require monks to meditate for several hours each day, during the intensive period they devote themselves almost exclusively to zen practice. The numerous 30–50 minute long sitting meditation (zazen) periods are interwoven with rest breaks, ritualized formal meals (Jp. oryoki), and short periods of work (Jp. samu) that are to be performed with the same state of mindfulness. In modern Buddhist practice in Japan, Taiwan, and the West, lay students often attend these intensive practice sessions or retreats. These are held at many Zen centers or temples.

Chanting and rituals

Esoteric practices

Depending on the tradition, esoteric methods such as mantra and dhāraṇī are also used for different purposes including meditation practice, protection from evil, invoking great compassion, invoking the power of certain bodhisattvas, and are chanted during ceremonies and rituals.[96][97] In the Kwan Um school of Zen for example, a mantra of Guanyin ("Kwanseum Bosal") is used during sitting meditation.[98] The Heart Sutra Mantra is also another mantra that is used in Zen during various rituals.[99] Another example is the Mantra of Light (kōmyō shingon), which is common in Japanese Soto Zen and was derived from the Shingon sect.[100]

In Chinese Chan, the usage of esoteric mantras in Zen goes back to the Tang dynasty. There is evidence that Chan Buddhists adopted practices from Chinese Esoteric Buddhism in findings from Dunhuang.[101] According to Henrik Sørensen, several successors of Shenxiu (such as Jingxian and Yixing) were also students of the Zhenyan (Mantra) school.[102] Influential esoteric dhāraṇī, such as the Uṣṇīṣa Vijaya Dhāraṇī Sūtra and the Nīlakaṇṭha Dhāraṇī, also begin to be cited in the literature of the Baotang school during the Tang dynasty.[103] Many mantras have been preserved since the Tang period and continue to be practiced in modern Chan monasteries. One common example is the Śūraṅgama Mantra,which has been heavily propagated by various prominent Chan monks, such as Venerable Hsuan Hua who founded the City of Ten Thousand Buddhas.[104] Another example of esoteric rituals practiced by the Chan school is the Mengshan Rite for Feeding Hungry Ghosts, which is practiced by both monks and laypeople during the Hungry Ghost Festival.[105][106][107] Chan repentance rituals, such as the Liberation Rite of Water and Land, also involve various esoteric aspects, including the invocation of esoteric deities such as the Five Wisdom Buddhas and the Ten Wisdom Kings.[108][109]

There is documentation that monks living at Shaolin temple during the eighth century performed esoteric practices there such as mantra and dharani, and that these also influenced Korean Seon Buddhism.[110] During the Joseon dynasty, the Seon school was not only the dominant tradition in Korea, but it was also highly inclusive and ecumenical in its doctrine and practices, and this included Esoteric Buddhist lore and rituals (that appear in Seon literature from the 15th century onwards). According to Sørensen, the writings of several Seon masters (such as Hyujeong) reveal they were esoteric adepts.[111]

In Japanese Zen, the use of esoteric practices within Zen is sometimes termed "mixed Zen" (kenshū zen 兼修禪), and the figure of Keizan Jōkin (1264–1325) is seen as introducing this into the Soto school.[112][113] The Japanese founder of the Rinzai school, Myōan Eisai (1141–1215) was also a well known practitioner of esoteric Buddhism and wrote various works on the subject.[114]

According to William Bodiford, a very common dhāraṇī in Japanese Zen is the Śūraṅgama spell (Ryōgon shu 楞嚴呪; T. 944A), which is repeatedly chanted during summer training retreats as well as at "every important monastic ceremony throughout the year" in Zen monasteries.[115] Some Zen temples also perform esoteric rituals, such as the homa ritual, which is performed at the Soto temple of Eigen-ji (in Saitama prefecture). As Bodiford writes, "perhaps the most notable examples of this phenomenon is the ambrosia gate (kanro mon 甘露門) ritual performed at every Sōtō Zen temple", which is associated feeding hungry ghosts, ancestor memorial rites and the ghost festival.[116] Bodiford also notes that formal Zen rituals of Dharma transmission often involve esoteric initiations.

Doctrine[edit]

Main article: Doctrinal background of Zen

A Dharma talk by Seon nun Daehaeng Kun Sunim, Hanmaum Seon Center, South Korea

Zen teachings can be likened to "the finger pointing at the moon".[117] Zen teachings point to the moon, awakening, "a realization of the unimpeded interpenetration of the dharmadhatu".[118] But the Zen-tradition also warns against taking its teachings, the pointing finger, to be this insight itself.[119][120][121][122]

Buddhist Mahayana influences

Though Zen-narrative states that it is a "special transmission outside scriptures", which "did not stand upon words",[123] Zen does have a rich doctrinal background that is firmly grounded in the Buddhist tradition.[124] It was thoroughly influenced by Mahayana teachings on the bodhisattva path, Chinese Madhyamaka (Sānlùn), Yogacara (Wéishí), Prajñaparamita, the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra, and other Buddha nature texts.[125][126][127] The influence of Madhyamaka and Prajñaparamita can be discerned in the stress on non-conceptual wisdom (prajña) and the apophatic language of Zen literature.[125][128][129][note 4]

The philosophy of the Huayan school also had an influence on Chinese Chan. One example is the Huayan doctrine of the interpenetration of phenomena, which also makes use of native Chinese philosophical concepts such as principle (li) and phenomena (shi).[130] The Huayan theory of the Fourfold Dharmadhatu also influenced the Five Ranks of Dongshan Liangjie (806–869), the founder of the Caodong Chan lineage.[131]

Buddha-nature and subitism

Central in the doctrinal development of Chan Buddhism was the notion of Buddha-nature, the idea that the awakened mind of a Buddha is already present in each sentient being[132] (pen chueh in Chinese Buddhism, hongaku in Japanese Zen).[133] This Buddha-nature was initially equated with the nature of mind, while later Chan-teachings evaded any reification by rejecting any positivist terminology.[134][note 3] The idea of the immanent character of the Buddha-nature took shape in a characteristic emphasis on direct insight into, and expression of this Buddha-nature.[135][136] It led to a reinterpretation and Sinification of Indian meditation terminology, and an emphasis on subitism, the idea that the Buddhist teachings and practices are comprehended and expressed "sudden,"[137] c.q. "in one glance," "uncovered all together," or "together, completely, simultaneously," in contrast to gradualism, "successively or being uncovered one after the other."[138] The emphasis on subitism led to the idea that "enlightenment occurs in a single transformation that is both total and instantaneous"[139] (Ch. shih-chueh).[140]

While the attribution of gradualism, attributed by Shenhui to a concurring faction, was a rhetoric device, it led to a conceptual dominance in the Chan-tradition of subitism, in which any charge of gradualism was to be avoided.[135][note 5] This "rhetorical purity" was hard to reconcile conceptually with the actual practice of meditation,[142][135] and left little place in Zen texts for the description of actual meditation practices, apparently rejecting any form of practice.[143][135][134][note 6] Instead, those texts directly pointed to and expressed this awakened nature, giving way to the paradoxically nature of encounter dialogue and koans.[135][134]

Caodong/Sōtō/Tào Động

Main article: Sōtō

Japanese Buddhist monk from the Sōtō Zen sect

Sōtō is the Japanese line of the Chinese Caodong school, which was founded during the Tang Dynasty by Dongshan Liangjie. The Sōtō-school has de-emphasized kōans since Gentō Sokuchū (circa 1800), and instead emphasized shikantaza.[145] Dogen, the founder of Soto in Japan, emphasized that practice and awakening cannot be separated. By practicing shikantaza, attainment and Buddhahood are already being expressed.[146] For Dogen, zazen, or shikantaza, is the essence of Buddhist practice.[147] Gradual cultivation was also recognized by Dongshan Liangjie.[148]

A lineage also exists in Vietnam, founded by 17th-century Chan master Thông Giác Đạo Nam. In Vietnamese, the school is known as "Tào Động."[149]

Linji/Rinzai

Main article: Rinzai school

The Rinzai school is the Japanese lineage of the Chinese Linji school, which was founded during the Tang dynasty by Linji Yixuan. The Rinzai school emphasizes kensho, insight into one's true nature.[150] This is followed by so-called post-satori practice, further practice to attain Buddhahood.[151][152][153]

Other Zen-teachers have also expressed sudden insight followed by gradual cultivation. Jinul, a 12th-century Korean Seon master, followed Zongmi, and also emphasized that insight into our true nature is sudden, but is to be followed by practice to ripen the insight and attain full buddhahood. This is also the standpoint of the contemporary Sanbo Kyodan, according to whom kenshō is at the start of the path to full enlightenment.[154]

To attain this primary insight and to deepen it, zazen and kōan-study is deemed essential. This trajectory of initial insight followed by a gradual deepening and ripening is expressed by Linji in his Three Mysterious Gates and Hakuin Ekaku's Four Ways of Knowing.[155] Another example of depiction of stages on the path are the Ten Bulls, which detail the steps on the path.

Scripture

Main article: Zen and Sutras

Archaeologist Aurel Stein's 1907 view of Mogao Cave 16, with altar and sutra scrolls

Tablets of the Tripiṭaka Koreana, an early edition of the Chinese Buddhist canon, in Haeinsa Temple, South Korea

The role of the scripture

Zen is deeply rooted in the teachings and doctrines of Mahāyāna Buddhism.[156] Classic Zen texts, such as the Platform sutra, contain numerous references to Buddhist canonical sutras.[157] According to Sharf, Zen monastics "are expected to become familiar with the classics of the Zen canon".[158] A review of the early historical documents and literature of early Zen masters clearly reveals that they were well versed in numerous Mahāyāna sūtras,[5][note 7][note 8][5][note 9] as well as Mahayana Buddhist philosophy such as Madhyamaka.[125]

Nevertheless, Zen is often pictured as anti-intellectual.[156] This picture of Zen emerged during the Song Dynasty (960–1297), when Chán became the dominant form of Buddhism in China, and gained great popularity among the educated and literary classes of Chinese society. The use of koans, which are highly stylized literary texts, reflects this popularity among the higher classes.[135] The famous saying "do not establish words and letters", attributed in this period to Bodhidharma,[161]

...was taken not as a denial of the recorded words of the Buddha or the doctrinal elaborations by learned monks, but as a warning to those who had become confused about the relationship between Buddhist teaching as a guide to the truth and mistook it for the truth itself.[162]

What the Zen tradition emphasizes is that the enlightenment of the Buddha came not through conceptualization but rather through direct insight.[163] But direct insight has to be supported by study and understanding (hori[164]) of the Buddhist teachings and texts.[165][note 10] Intellectual understanding without practice is called yako-zen, "wild fox Zen", but "one who has only experience without intellectual understanding is a zen temma, 'Zen devil'".[167]

Grounding Chán in scripture

The early Buddhist schools in China were each based on a specific sutra. At the beginning of the Tang Dynasty, by the time of the Fifth Patriarch Hongren (601–674), the Zen school became established as a separate school of Buddhism.[168] It had to develop a doctrinal tradition of its own to ascertain its position[135] and to ground its teachings in a specific sutra. Various sutras were used for this even before the time of Hongren: the Śrīmālādevī Sūtra (Huike),[169] Awakening of Faith (Daoxin),[169] the Lankavatara Sutra (East Mountain School),[169][5] the Diamond Sutra[170] (Shenhui),[169] and the Platform Sutra.[5][170] The Chan tradition drew inspiration from a variety of sources and thus did not follow any single scripture over the others.[171] Subsequently, the Zen tradition produced a rich corpus of written literature, which has become a part of its practice and teaching. Other influential sutras are the Vimalakirti Sutra,[172][173][174] Avatamsaka Sutra,[175] the Shurangama Sutra,[176] and the Mahaparinirvana Sutra.[177]

In his analysis of the works of the influential Hongzhou school of Chan, Mario Poceski notes that they cite the following Mahayana sutras: the Lotus Sutra 法華經, the Huayan 華嚴經, the Nirvana 涅盤經, the Laṅkāvatāra 楞伽經, the Prajñāpāramitās 般若經, the Mahāratnakūta 大寶積經, the Mahāsamnipāta 大集經, and the Vimalakīrti 維摩經.[178]

Literature

Organization and institutions

Main articles: Zen organisation and institutions, Zen ranks and hierarchy, Dharma transmission, and Zen lineage charts

Religion is not only an individual matter, but "also a collective endeavour".[182] Though individual experience[183] and the iconoclastic picture of Zen[184] are emphasised in the Western world, the Zen-tradition is maintained and transferred by a high degree of institutionalisation and hierarchy.[185][186] In Japan, modernity has led to criticism of the formal system and the commencement of lay-oriented Zen-schools such as the Sanbo Kyodan [187] and the Ningen Zen Kyodan.[188] How to organize the continuity of the Zen-tradition in the West, constraining charismatic authority and the derailment it may bring on the one hand,[189][190][54] and maintaining the legitimacy and authority by limiting the number of authorized teachers on the other hand,[182] is a challenge for the developing Zen-communities in the West.

Narratives

Main article: Zen Narratives

The Chán of the Tang Dynasty, especially that of Mazu and Linji with its emphasis on "shock techniques", in retrospect was seen as a golden age of Chán.[135] It became dominant during the Song Dynasty, when Chán was the dominant form of Buddhism in China, due to support from the Imperial Court.[135] This picture has gained great popularity in the West in the 20th century, especially due to the influence of D.T. Suzuki,[191] and further popularized by Hakuun Yasutani and the Sanbo Kyodan.[183] This picture has been challenged, and complemented, since the 1970s by modern scientific research on Zen.[135][192][193][194][195][196]

Modern scientific research on the history of Zen discerns three main narratives concerning Zen, its history and its teachings: Traditional Zen Narrative (TZN),[197][198] Buddhist Modernism (BM),[191] Historical and Cultural Criticism (HCC).[197] An external narrative is Nondualism, which claims Zen to be a token of a universal nondualist essence of religions.[199][200]

History

Chinese Chán

Main article: Chinese Chán

Huike Offering His Arm to Bodhidharma, Sesshū Tōyō (1496).

Zen (Chinese: Chán 禪) Buddhism, as we know it today, is the result of a long history, with many changes and contingent factors. Each period had different types of Zen, some of which remained influential, while others vanished.[135] The history of Chán in China is divided into various periods by different scholars, who generally distinguish a classical phase and a post-classical period.

Ferguson distinguishes three periods from the 5th century into the 13th century:

The Legendary period, from Bodhidharma in the late 5th century to the An Lushan Rebellion around 765 CE, in the middle of the Tang Dynasty. Little written information is left from this period.[201] It is the time of the Six Patriarchs, including Bodhidharma and Huineng, and the legendary "split" between the Northern and the Southern School of Chán.[135]
The Classical period, from the end of the An Lushan Rebellion around 765 CE to the beginning of the Song Dynasty around 950 CE.[201] This is the time of the great masters of Chán, such as Mazu Daoyi and Linji Yixuan, and the creation of the yü-lü genre, the recordings of the sayings and teachings of these great masters.
The Literary period, from around 950 to 1250,[201] which spans the era of the Song Dynasty (960–1279). In this time the gongan-collections were compiled, collections of sayings and deeds by the famous masters, appended with poetry and commentary. This genre reflects the influence of literati on the development of Chán. This period idealized the previous period as the "golden age" of Chán, producing the literature in which the spontaneity of the celebrated masters was portrayed.

Although McRae has reservations about the division of Chán-history in phases or periods,[202] he nevertheless distinguishes four phases in the history of Chán:[203]

Proto-Chán (c. 500–600) (Southern and Northern Dynasties (420 to 589) and Sui Dynasty (589–618 CE)). In this phase, Chán developed in multiple locations in northern China. It was based on the practice of dhyana and is connected to the figures of Bodhidharma and Huike. Its principal text is the Two Entrances and Four Practices, attributed to Bodhidharma.[204]
Early Chán (c. 600–900) (Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE)). In this phase Chán took its first clear contours. Prime figures are the fifth patriarch Daman Hongren (601–674), his dharma-heir Yuquan Shenxiu (606?–706), the sixth patriarch Huineng (638–713), protagonist of the quintessential Platform Sutra, and Shenhui (670–762), whose propaganda elevated Huineng to the status of sixth patriarch. Prime factions are the Northern School, Southern School and Oxhead school.[205]
Middle Chán (c. 750–1000) (from An Lushan Rebellion (755–763) till Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period (907–960/979)). In this phase developed the well-known Chán of the iconoclastic zen-masters. Prime figures are Mazu Daoyi (709–788), Shitou Xiqian (710–790), Linji Yixuan (died 867), and Xuefeng Yicun (822–908). Prime factions are the Hongzhou school and the Hubei faction[note 11] An important text is the Anthology of the Patriarchal Hall (952), which gives a great amount of "encounter-stories", and the well-known genealogy of the Chán-school.[208]
Song Dynasty Chán (c. 950–1300). In this phase Chán took its definitive shape including the picture of the "golden age" of the Chán of the Tang-Dynasty, and the use of koans for individual study and meditation. Prime figures are Dahui Zonggao (1089–1163) who introduced the Hua Tou practice and Hongzhi Zhengjue (1091–1157) who emphasized Shikantaza. Prime factions are the Linji school and the Caodong school. The classic koan-collections, such as the Blue Cliff Record were assembled in this period,[209] which reflect the influence of the "literati" on the development of Chán.[210][161] In this phase Chán is transported to Japan, and exerts a great influence on Korean Seon via Jinul.

Neither Ferguson nor McRae give a periodisation for Chinese Chán following the Song-dynasty, though McRae mentions "at least a post-classical phase or perhaps multiple phases".[211] According to David McMahan:

During the Ming dynasty (1368–1644) and the Qing Dynasty (1644–1912) Chán was part of a larger, syncretic Buddhist culture. A final phase can be distinguished from the 19th century onward, when western imperialism had a growing influence in South-East Asia, including China. A side effect of this imperial influence was the modernisation of Asian religions, adapting them to western ideas and rhetorical strategies.[191]

Origins

Proto-Chán

Bodhidharma, stone carving in Shaolin Temple.

Proto-Chán (c. 500–600) encompasses the Southern and Northern Dynasties period (420 to 589) and Sui Dynasty (589–618 CE). In this phase, Chán developed in multiple locations in northern China. It was based on the practice of dhyana and is connected to the figures of Bodhidharma, Seng-fu and Huike, though there is little actual historical information about these early figures and most legendary stories about their life come from later, mostly Tang sources. What is known is that they were considered Mahayana meditation masters.[224][135]

An important text from this period is the Two Entrances and Four Practices, found in Dunhuang, and attributed to Bodhidharma.[204] Later sources mention that these figures taught using the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra though there is no direct evidence of this from the earliest sources.[225][226] According to John McRae, the earliest Chan sources on these masters show considerable influence from Madhyamaka thought, while the influence from the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra is actually much less pronounced and it is questionable if it was there at all with regards to the earliest figures like Bodhidharma and Huike.[224]

Early Chán

Hongren

Early Chán refers to early Tang Dynasty (618–750) Chán. The fifth patriarch Daman Hongren (601–674), and his dharma-heir Yuquan Shenxiu (606?–706) were influential in founding the first Chan institution in Chinese history, known as the "East Mountain school" (Dongshan famen).[227] Hongren taught the practice of shou-hsin, "maintaining (guarding) the mind," in which "an awareness of True Mind or Buddha-nature within" is maintained, "[exhorting] the practitioners to unremittingly apply themselves to the practice of meditation."[228]

Shenxiu was the most influential and charismatic student of Hongren, he was even invited to the Imperial Court by Empress Wu.[229] Shenxiu also became the target of much criticism by Shenhui (670–762), for his "gradualist" teachings. Shenhui instead promoted the "sudden" teachings of his teacher Huineng (638–713) as well as what later became a very influential Chán classic called the Platform Sutra.[230] Shenhui's propaganda campaign eventually succeeded in elevating Huineng to the status of sixth patriarch of Chinese Chán.[231][135] The sudden vs. gradual debate that developed in this era came to define later forms of Chan Buddhism.[232]

Middle Chán

Mazu

The Middle Chán (c. 750–1000) period runs from the An Lushan Rebellion (755–763) to the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period (907–960/979). This phase saw the development new schools of Chan. The most important of these schools is the Hongzhou school of Mazu Daoyi (709–788), to which also belong Shitou, Baizhang, and Huangbo. This school is sometimes seen as the archetypal expression of Chán, with its emphasis on the personal expression of insight, and its rejection of positive statements, as well as the importance it placed on spontaneous and unconventional "questions and answers during an encounter" (linji wenda) between master and disciple.[126][233]

However, modern scholars have seen much of the literature that presents these "iconoclastic" encounters as being later revisions during the Song era, and instead see the Hongzhou masters as not being very radical, instead promoting pretty conservative ideas, such as keeping precepts, accumulating good karma and practicing meditation.[233] The school did produce innovative teachings and perspectives such as Mazu's views that "this mind is Buddha" and that "ordinary mind is the way", which were also critiqued by later figures, such as the influential Guifeng Zongmi (780–841), for failing to differentiate between ignorance and enlightenment.[234]

By the end of the late Tang, the Hongzhou school was gradually superseded by various regional traditions, which became known as the Five Houses of Chán. Shitou Xiqian (710–790) is regarded as the Patriarch of Cáodòng (Jp. Sōtō) school, while Linji Yixuan (died 867) is regarded as the founder of Línjì (Jp. Rinzai) school. Both of these traditions were quite influential both in and outside of China. Another influential Chán master of the late Tang was Xuefeng Yicun. During the later Tang, the practice of the "encounter dialogue" reached its full maturity. These formal dialogues between master and disciple may have used absurd, illogical and iconoclastic language as well as non-verbal forms of communication such as the drawing of circles and physical gestures like shouting and hitting.[235]

It was also common to write fictional encounter dialogues and attribute them to previous Chán figures.[235] An important text from this period is the Anthology of the Patriarchal Hall (952), which gives many "encounter-stories", as well as establishing a genealogy of the Chán school.[208] The Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution in 845 was devastating for metropolitan Chan, but the Chan school of Mazu survived, and took a leading role in the Chan of the later Tang.[236]

Song Dynasty Chán

Dahui introduced the method of kan huatou, or "inspecting the critical phrase", of a kōan story. This method was called the "Chan of kōan introspection" (Kanhua Chan).[237]

During Song Dynasty Chán (c. 950–1300), Chán Buddhism took its definitive shape, through the development of the use of koans for individual study and meditation. It was also during the Song that Chan literati developed their own idealized history of Chan, particularly promoting the idea of a Tang "golden age" of Chan.[238] During the Song, Chán became the largest sect of Chinese Buddhism and had strong ties to the imperial government, which led to the development of a highly organized system of temple rank and administration.[239]

The dominant form of Song Chán was the Linji school due to support from the scholar-official class and the imperial court.[240] This school developed the study of gong'an ("public case") literature, which depicted stories of master-student encounters that were seen as demonstrations of the awakened mind. Most of these stories depicted the idealized encounters of past Chan masters, particularly from the Tang era, and show the influence of the Chinese literati class.[241][238][210][161] The most influential of these works are the Blue Cliff Record, the Book of Equanimity and The Gateless Gate.[209]

During the 12th century, a rivalry emerged between the Linji and the Caodong schools for the support of the scholar-official class. Hongzhi Zhengjue (1091–1157) of the Caodong school emphasized silent illumination or serene reflection (mòzhào) as a means for solitary practice, which could be undertaken by lay-followers. The Linji school's Dahui Zonggao (1089–1163) meanwhile, introduced k'an-hua chan ("observing the word-head" chan), which involved meditation on the crucial phrase or "punch line" (hua-tou) of a gong'an.[242][243]

The Song also saw the syncretism of Chán and Pure Land Buddhism by Yongming Yanshou (904–975), which would later become extremely influential.[244] Yongming also echoed Zongmi's work in indicating that the values of Taoism and Confucianism could also be embraced and integrated into Buddhism. Chán also influenced Neo-Confucianism as well as certain forms of Taoism, such as the Quanzhen school.[245][246]

During the Song, Chán was also transported to Japan by figures like Eisai and exerted a great influence on Korean Seon via Jinul.

Post-Classical Chán

During the Ming Dynasty, the Chán school was so dominant that all Chinese monks were affiliated with either the Linji school or the Caodong school.[247]

Some scholars see the post-classical phase as being an "age of syncretism."[248] The post-classical period saw the increasing popularity of the dual practice of Chán and Pure Land Buddhism (known as nianfo Chan), as seen in the teachings of Zhongfeng Mingben (1263–1323) and the great reformer Hanshan Deqing (1546–1623). This became a widespread phenomenon and in time much of the distinction between them was lost, with many monasteries teaching both Chán meditation and the Pure Land practice of nianfo.[249][250][58]

The Ming dynasty also saw the efforts of figures such as Yunqi Zhuhong (1535–1615) and Daguan Zhenke (1543–1603) to revive and reconcile Chan Buddhism with the practice of Buddhist scriptural study and writing.[248]

In the beginning of the Qing Dynasty, Chán was "reinvented", by the "revival of beating and shouting practices" by Miyun Yuanwu (1566–1642), and the publication of the Wudeng yantong ("The strict transmission of the five Chan schools") by Feiyin Tongrong's (1593–1662), a dharma heir of Miyun Yuanwu. The book placed self-proclaimed Chan monks without proper Dharma transmission in the category of "lineage unknown" (sifa weixiang), thereby excluding several prominent Caodong monks.[251]

Modern era

Xuyun was one of the most influential Chán Buddhists of the 19th and 20th centuries.[252]

After further centuries of decline during the Qing Dynasty (1644–1912), Chán activity was revived again in the 19th and 20th centuries by a flurry of modernist activity. This period saw the rise of worldly Chan activism, what is sometimes called Humanistic Buddhism (or more literally "Buddhism for human life", rensheng fojiao), promoted by figures like Jing'an (1851–1912), Yuanying (1878–1953), Taixu (1890–1947), Xuyun (1840–1959) and Yinshun (1906–2005). These figures promoted social activism to address issues such as poverty and social injustice, as well as participation in political movements. They also promoted modern science and scholarship, including the use of the methods of modern critical scholarship to study the history of Chan.[253]

Many Chán teachers today trace their lineage back to Xuyun, including Sheng-yen and Hsuan Hua, who have propagated Chán in the West where it has grown steadily through the 20th and 21st centuries. Chán Buddhism was repressed in China during the 1960s in the Cultural Revolution, but in the subsequent reform and opening up period in the 1970s, a revival of Chinese Buddhism has been taking place on the mainland, while Buddhism has a significant following in Taiwan and Hong Kong as well as among Overseas Chinese.

Spread outside of China

Vietnamese Thiền

See also: Vietnamese Thiền and Buddhism in Vietnam

Thích Nhất Hạnh leading a namo avalokiteshvaraya chanting session with monastics from his Order of Interbeing, Germany 2010

Chan was introduced to Vietnam during the early Chinese occupation periods (111 BCE to 939 CE) as Thiền. During the Lý (1009–1225) and Trần (1225 to 1400) dynasties, Thiền rose to prominence among the elites and the royal court and a new native tradition was founded, the Trúc Lâm ("Bamboo Grove") school, which also contained Confucian and Taoist influences. In the 17th century, the Linji school was brought to Vietnam as the Lâm Tế, which also mixed Chan and Pure land. Lâm Tế remains the largest monastic order in the country today.[254]

Modern Vietnamese Thiền is influenced by Buddhist modernism.[255] Important figures include Thiền master Thích Thanh Từ (1924–), the activist and popularizer Thích Nhất Hạnh (1926–2022) and the philosopher Thích Thiên-Ân. Vietnamese Thiền is eclectic and inclusive, bringing in many practices such as breath meditation, nianfo, mantra, Theravada influences, chanting, sutra recitation and engaged Buddhism activism.

Korean Seon

Main article: Korean Seon

Japanese Zen

Main article: Japanese Zen

Zen in the West

Although it is difficult to trace the precise moment when the West first became aware of Zen as a distinct form of Buddhism, the visit of Soyen Shaku, a Japanese Zen monk, to Chicago during the World Parliament of Religions in 1893 is often pointed to as an event that enhanced the profile of Zen in the Western world. It was during the late 1950s and the early 1960s that the number of Westerners other than the descendants of Asian immigrants who were pursuing a serious interest in Zen began to reach a significant level. Japanese Zen has gained the greatest popularity in the West. The various books on Zen by Reginald Horace Blyth, Alan Watts, Philip Kapleau and D. T. Suzuki[citation needed] published between 1950 and 1975, contributed to this growing interest in Zen in the West, as did the interest on the part of beat poets such as Jack Kerouac, Allen Ginsberg and Gary Snyder.[257] In 1958, the literary magazine Chicago Review played a significant role in introducing Zen to the American literary community[258] when it published a special issue[259] on Zen featuring the aforementioned beat poets and works in translation. Erich Fromm quotes D. T. Suzuki in his 1960 book Psychoanalysis and Zen Buddhism.[260]

The publication in 1974 of Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance by American writer Robert Pirsig brought the application of Zen thinking into a way of understanding non dualism in a practical sense. Drawing on a wide range of philosophical and logical sources, the book became the biggest selling work on philosophy ever published.

Notes

^ Dumoulin writes in his preface to Zen. A History. Part One: India and China: "Zen (Chin. Ch'an, an abbreviation of ch'an-na, which transliterates the Sanskrit Dhyāna (Devanagari: ध्यान) or its Pali cognate Jhāna (Sanskrit; Pāli झान), terms meaning "meditation") is the name of a Mahāyāna Buddhist school of meditation originating in China. It is characterized by the practice of meditation in the lotus position (Jpn., zazen; Chin., tso-ch'an and the use of the koan (Chin., kung-an) as well as by the enlightenment experience of satori[2]
^ It first appears in a Chinese text named the Ju-tao an-hsin yao-fang-pien fa-men (JTFM, Instructions on essential expedients for calming the mind and accessing the path), itself a part of the Leng Ch'ieh Shih TZu Chi (Records of the Masters of the Lankavatara).[28] The Records of the Masters of the Lankavatara is associated with the early Chan tradition known as the "East Mountain School" and has been dated to around 713.[31]
^ Jump up to:a b Compare Mazu's "Mind is Buddha" versus "No mind, no Buddha": "When Ch'an Master Fa-ch'ang of Ta-mei Mountain went to see the Patriarch for the first time, he asked, "What is Buddha?"
The Patriarch replied, "Mind is Buddha." [On hearing this] Fa-ch'ang had great awakening.
Later he went to live on Ta-mei mountain. When the Patriarch heard that he was residing on the mountain, he sent one of his monks to go there and ask Fa-ch'ang, "What did the Venerable obtain when he saw Ma-tsu, so that he has come to live on this mountain?"
Fach'ang said, "Ma-tsu told me that mind is Buddha; so I came to live here."
The monk said, "Ma-tsu's teaching has changed recently."
Fa-ch'ang asked, "What is the difference?"
The monk said, "Nowadays he also says, 'Neither mind nor Buddha."'
Fa-ch'ang said, "That old man still hasn't stopped confusing people. You can have 'neither mind nor Buddha,' I only care for 'mind is Buddha."'
The monk returned to the Patriarch and reported what has happened. "The plum is ripe." said the Patriarch."[33]
^ According to Kalupahana, the influence of Yofacara is stronger in the ts'ao-tung school and the tradition of silent meditation, while the influence of Madhyamaka is clear in the koan-tradition and its stress on insight and the use of paradoxical language.[129]
^ Nevertheless, the Platform Sutra attempts to reconcile Shenhui's rhetorics with the actual Zen practices, just like later Chan writers like Zong-mi did.[141]
^ Nevertheless, the classical texts of Chan which seem to reject practice, also contain references to practice.[134] Chieng Cheng: "...in the writings that are associated with [Ma-tsu's] school there is a marked tendency towards elocutionary purity, where all forms of verbal formulation are eschewed, including any instructions about practice. However,the fact that practical advice about day-to-day cultivation is something that is usually lacking in the records of the masters of this tradition does not necessary means that it was not given by them. In the records of Ma-tsu's Hung-chou school there are instances with very clear "gradual" ting [...] In looking for possible reasons for the apparent lack of expedient means in the extant records of the teachings of the Hung-chou school, it might be useful to remind ourselves of the audience to whom the teaching was directed. As the records make it clear, most of the teachings were received by monks who were familiar with the basic Buddhist practices and (ideally) had good command of the doctrinal teachings [...] It seems that the basic practices of worship, study, precepts, and meditation were all too familiar to be regarded as somethingthat was necessary to be recorded."[144]
^ Sasaki's translation of the Linji yulu contains an extensive biography of 62 pages, listing influential Chinese Buddhist texts that played a role in Song dynasty Chán.[159]
^ Albert Low: "It is evident that the masters were well versed in the sutras. Zen master Tokusan, for example, knew the Diamond Sutra well and, before meeting with his own Zen master, lectured upon it extensively; the founder of the Zen sect, Bodhidharma, the very one who preached selfrealization outside the scriptures, nevertheless advocated the Lankavatara Sutra; Zen master Hogen knew the Avatamsaka Sutra well, and koan twenty-six in the Mumonkan, in which Hogen is involved, comes out of the teaching of that sutra. Other koans, too, make reference directly or indirectly to the sutras. The autobiography of yet another Zen master, Hui Neng, subsequently became the Platform Sutra, one of those sutras so condemned by those who reject intellectual and sutra studies"[160]
^ Poceski: "Direct references to specific scriptures are relatively rare in the records of Mazu and his disciples, but that does not mean that they rejected the canon or repudiated its authority. On the contrary, one of the striking features of their records is that they are filled with scriptural quotations and allusions, even though the full extent of their usage of canonical sources is not immediately obvious and its discernment requires familiarity with Buddhist literature." See source for a full-length example from "one of Mazu's sermons", in which can be found references to the Vimalakīrti Scripture, the Huayan Scripture, the Mahāsamnipata-sūtra, the Foshuo Foming Scripture 佛說佛名經, the Lankāvatāra scripture and the Faju jing.[5]
^ Hakuin goes as far as to state that the buddhat path even starts with study: "[A] person [...] must first gain wide-ranging knowledge, accumulate a treasure-store of wisdom by studying all the Buddhist sutras and commentaries, reading through all the classic works Buddhist and nonBuddhist and perusing the writings of the wise men of other traditions. It is for that reason the vow states "the Dharma teachings are infinite, I vow to study them all.""[166]
^ McRae gives no further information on this "Hubei faction". It may be the continuation of Shenxiu's "Northern School". See Nadeau 2012 p.89.[206] Hebei was also the place where the Linji branch of chán arose.[207]

References

^ Harvey 1995, p. 159–169.
^ Jump up to:a b Dumoulin 2005a, p. xvii.
^ Yoshizawa 2009, p. 41.
^ Sekida 1989.
^ Jump up to:a b c d e f Poceski n.d.
^ Borup 2008, p. 8.
^ Yampolski 2003a, p. 3.
^ Dumoulin 2005a, p. 48.
^ Lievens 1981, p. 52–53.
^ Dumoulin 2005a, pp. 41–45.
^ Andre van der Braak (2011), Self Overcoming Without a Self, p.117
^ Wang 2017, p. 79.
^ Kasulis 2003, p. 24.
^ Wang 2017, p. 58.
^ Zimmer, Ben (28 September 2018). "Zen and the Art of Scrabble Dictionary Maintenance". Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on 23 January 2021. Retrieved 3 January 2021 – via www.wsj.com.
^ Schlütter 2008, p. 169.
^ Jump up to:a b Deleanu, Florin (1992); Mindfulness of Breathing in the Dhyāna Sūtras Archived 19 May 2015 at the Wayback Machine. Transactions of the International Conference of Orientalists in Japan (TICOJ) 37, 42–57.
^ Buswell, Robert E. Jr.; Lopez, Donald S. Jr. (24 November 2013). The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism. Princeton University Press. ISBN 9780691157863. Archived from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 4 November 2020.
^ Wang 2017, p. 59.
^ Mohr, Michel. 2006. Imagining Indian Zen: Tōrei's Commentary on the Ta-Mo-to-Lo Ch'an Ching and the Rediscovery of Early Meditation Techniques During the Tokugawa Era. In Zen Classics: Formative Texts in the History of Zen Buddhism, edited by Steven Heine, and Dale S. Wright. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 215–246.
^ Fischer-Schreiber, Ehrhard & Diener 2008, p. 103.
^ Ven. Dr. Yuanci, A Study of the Meditation Methods in the DESM and Other Early Chinese Texts Archived 8 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine, The Buddhist Academy of China.
^ Zhang & Stevenson 2002, pp. 27–28.
^ Zhang & Stevenson 2002, pp. 29–30.
^ Jump up to:a b Luk, Charles. The Secrets of Chinese Meditation. 1964. p. 44
^ Nan, Huai-Chin. Basic Buddhism: Exploring Buddhism and Zen. 1997. p. 92
^ McRae 1986, p. 115-116.
^ Jump up to:a b c d McRae 1986, p. 143.
^ Sharf 2014, p. 939, 951.
^ Sharf 2014, p. 939.
^ Robert E. Buswell Jr. (2017). The Formation of Ch'an Ideology in China and Korea: The Vajrasamadhi-Sutra, a Buddhist Apocryphon. Princeton University Press, p. 141.
^ Sharf 2014, p. 945-950.
^ Cheng Chien Bhikshu 1992.
^ McRae 2004, p. 39.
^ Jump up to:a b Gregory, Peter N. (1986). "Ch 'ang-lu Tsung-tse and Zen Meditation". Traditions of Meditation in Chinese Buddhism. University of Hawaii Press.
^ Katsuki Sekida, Zen Training: Methods and Philosophy, Shambhala Publications, 2005, p. 60.
^ Omori Sogen, Introduction To Zen Training, Routledge, 2012, p. 49.
^ Sheng, Yen. "Fundamentals of Meditation". Archived from the original on 17 April 2012. Retrieved 18 December 2011.
^ Katsuki Sekida, Zen Training: Methods and Philosophy, Shambhala Publications, 2005, p. 61.
^ Taizan Maezumi, Bernie Glassman (editors) On Zen Practice: Body, Breath, and Mind, pp. 41–42.
^ Katsuki Sekida, Zen Training: Methods and Philosophy, Shambhala Publications, 2005, p. 64.
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심념처

고용한 정원 — Tue, 9 May 2023 09:56:54 +0900

심념처는 마음[心]을 지관하여 알아차리는 것으로,

간략히 정의하자면, 마음을 무상한 것이라고 관하는 것

또는 마음을 마음 그대로 관하는 것[觀心如心]이다.

마음이란 안식 · 이식 · 비식 · 설식 · 신식 · 의식의 6식

또는 여기에 말나식과 아뢰야식을 더한 8식을 말한다.

심념처 수행의 목적이라는 측면에서는,

심념처는 '마음이 항상하는 존재(법)가 아니라

생각 생각마다 일어나고 사라지는 생멸하는 존재라는 것을

지관하여 알아차리거나' 또는 '마음을 마음 그대로 지관하여 알아차려서'

무상의 진리를 실천적으로 깨우치는 것이다

팔리어 경전 중 《디가 니까야》 제22경 〈대념처경〉(Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta)에 나타나는

심념처의 내용은 다음과 같다

탐욕이 있음에 대한 알아차림
탐욕이 없음에 대한 알아차림
분노가 있음에 대한 알아차림
분노가 없음에 대한 알아차림
어리석음이 있음에 대한 알아차림
어리석음이 없음에 대한 알아차림
위축됨이 있음에 대한 알아차림
산란함이 있음에 대한 알아차림
넓은 마음이 있음에 대한 알아차림
넓은 마음이 없음에 대한 알아차림
우월한 마음이 있음에 대한 알아차림
우월한 마음이 없음에 대한 알아차림
고요한 마음이 있음에 대한 알아차림
고요한 마음이 없음에 대한 알아차림
해탈한 마음이 있음에 대한 알아차림
해탈한 마음이 없음에 대한 알아차림

법념처

법념처는 법(法) 즉 존재 또는 현상을 지관하여 알아차리는 것으로,

간략히 정의하자면, 온갖 존재 또는 현상을 무아(無我)라고

즉 나라고 부를만한 자성이 없는 것이라고 관하는 것]또는 법을 법 그대로 관하는 것[觀法如法]이다.

법념처 수행의 목적이라는 측면에서는, 법념처는 '모든 생겨난 존재가 인연의 화합에 의해 생겨나는 것으로

본질적으로 무아라는 것을 지관하여 알아차리거나'

또는 '법을 법 그대로 지관하여 알아차려서' 무상의 진리를 실천적으로 깨우치는 것이다.

팔리어 경전 중 《디가 니까야》 제22경 〈대념처경〉(Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta)에 나타나는 법념처의 내용은 다음과 같다.

다섯 장애[五蓋]에 대한 알아차림
다섯 집착된 온[五取蘊]에 대한 알아차림
여섯 터전[六入處]에 대한 알아차림
일곱 깨달음 요소[七覺支]에 대한 알아차림
네 가지 거룩한 진리[四聖諦]의 법에 대한 알아차림

4정단

4정단(四正斷)은 단단(斷斷) · 율의단(律儀斷) · 수호단(隨護斷) · 수단(修斷)을 말한다.

《불설선행삼십칠품경》(佛說禪行三十七品經)에서는 4정단에 대해 다음과 같이 말하고 있다.

T15n0604_p0180c18║佛言：「諸比丘！若彈指間，惟行未生惡法不令

T15n0604_p0180c19║生(율의단)，勸意治行，精進攝意，是為精進行禪，為如
T15n0604_p0180c20║佛教，不是愚癡食人施，何況多行者，撮取其
T15n0604_p0180c21║要；若彈指間，惟行已生惡法即得斷(단단)，若惟
T15n0604_p0180c22║行未生善法便發生(수호단)，及已生善法立不忘，增
T15n0604_p0180c23║行得滿(수단)，勸意治行，精進攝意，皆如上說，何況
T15n0604_p0180c24║多行者；是故可念行四意斷(4정단)。

부처님께서 모든 비구들에게 말씀하셨다.

“만일 손가락을 튀기는 순간에도 오직 아직 생겨나지 않은 악법은 생겨나지 못하게 하며(율의단),

뜻을 권하여 행을 다스리고 정진하여서

뜻을 거두기를 행한다면, 이것이 바로 정진(精進)하여

선(禪)을 행하는 것이며, 부처님께서 가르치신 대로이니,

이 어리석은 사람이 남의 보시만 먹는 것이 아닐진대,

어찌 하물며 많이 행한 이이겠느냐?

그 요체를 모아 잡아서 만약 손가락 튀기는 순간에도

오직 이미 생겨난 악법(惡法)은 곧 끊기를 행하며(단단),

아직 생겨나지 않은 선법(善法)은 곧 생겨나게 하고(수호단),

이미 생겨난 선법은 세워 잊지 않아서 행을 더하여 원만함을 얻으며(수단),

뜻을 권하여 행을 다스리고 정진하여 뜻을 거둔다면,

모두 위에서 설한 바와 같으니,

어찌 하물며 많이 행하는 이이겠느냐?

그러므로 4정단(四正斷, 4의단 四意斷)을 생각하여 행해야 하느니라.”

— 《불설선행삼십칠품경》(佛說禪行三十七品經)

위의 《불설선행삼십칠품경》에 나타난 바와 같이 4정단의 각 요소를 간략히 정의하면 다음과 같다.

단단(斷斷): 이미 생겨난 악을 끊는 것
율의단(律儀斷): 아직 생겨나지 않은 악을 생겨나지 못하게 하는 것
수호단(隨護斷): 아직 생겨나지 않은 선을 생겨나게 하는 것
수단(修斷): 이미 생겨난 선을 강화하는 것

보다 자세히 말하자면,

먼저, 단단(斷斷) · 율의단(律儀斷) · 수호단(隨護斷) · 수단(修斷)에 공통된 낱말 '단'(斷)에는

번뇌를 끊는다[斷除煩惱], 결단하여 실행한다[決定而斷行], 게으름[懈怠]을 바로 지금 끊는다[正斷]는 세 가지 뜻이 있다.

단단은 끊어야 할 것[斷]을 끊는다[斷] 또는 끊는 것[斷]을 결단하여 실행한다[斷]는 것으로,

이미 생겨난 즉 현행하고 있는 5악 · 10악 · 5개 · 수번뇌를 비롯한

제반 번뇌를 끊기 위해 바로 지금 게으름을 끊고 정진하는 것을 뜻한다.

율의단은 율의(律儀) 즉 계율로써 미리 끊는다[斷] 또는 율의로써 결단하여 실행한다[斷]는 것으로,

계율을 지킴으로써 그 계율의 상대가 되는 아직 생겨나지 않은

즉 아직 현행하지 않은 5악 · 10악 · 5개 · 수번뇌를 비롯한 제반 번뇌를 끊기 위해

즉 그 번뇌가 계속 현행하지 않도록 하기 위해 바로 지금 게으름을 끊고 정진하는 것을 뜻한다.

수호단은 따라 지켜야 할 것을 따라 지켜서[隨護] 끊는다[斷] 또는 따라 지키는 것[隨護]을 결단하여 살행한다[斷]는 것으로, 아직 현행하지 않은 선법(善法) 또는 정법(正法) 또는 무루법을 따라 마음(몸과 말과 뜻)을 지킴으로써

그것을 가로막고 현행하지 못하게 하는 번뇌를 끊거나 조복시키고

결국 그 선법 또는 정법 또는 무루법이 현행하게 하기 위해 바로 지금 게으름을 끊고 정진하는 것을 뜻한다.

수단은 반복하여 닦아서[修] 끊는다[斷] 또는 반복하여 닦는 것[修]을 결단하여 실행한다[斷]는 것으로,

이미 현행한 선법 또는 정법 또는 무루법을 더욱 닦아 증장시켜

그것의 완전한 실현을 가로막고 현행하지 못하게 하는 번뇌를 끊어 그것이 완전히 현행하게 하기 위해

바로 지금 게으름을 끊고 정진하는 것을 뜻한다.

《잡아함경》 제31권 제877경 〈사정단경 ③〉에서는 다음과 같이 설하고 있다.

T02n0099_p0221a21║如是我聞：一時，佛住舍衛國祇樹給孤

T02n0099_p0221a22║獨園。爾時，世尊告諸比丘：「有四正斷。何等
T02n0099_p0221a23║為四？一者斷斷，二者律儀斷，三者隨護斷，
T02n0099_p0221a24║四者修斷。云何為斷斷？謂比丘亦已起惡
T02n0099_p0221a25║不善法斷，生欲、方便、精勤、心攝受，是為斷
T02n0099_p0221a26║斷。云何律儀斷？未起惡不善法不起，生欲、方
T02n0099_p0221a27║便、精勤、攝受，是名律儀斷。云何隨護斷？未起
T02n0099_p0221a28║善法令起，生欲、方便、精勤攝受，是名隨護
T02n0099_p0221a29║斷。云何修斷？已起善法增益修習，生欲、方便、
T02n0099_p0221b01║精勤、攝受，是為修斷。」佛說此經已，諸比丘
T02n0099_p0221b02║聞佛所說，歡喜奉行。

이와 같이 나는 들었다.
어느 때 부처님께서 사위국 기수급고독원에 계셨다.
그때 세존께서 모든 비구들에게 말씀하셨다.
“4정단이 있다. 어떤 것이 그 네 가지인가？

첫째는 단단이요,

둘째는 율의단이요,

셋째는 수호단이요,

넷째는 수단이니라.

어떤 것을 단단이라고 하는가？

이른바 비구가 이미 일어난 악하고 착하지 않은 법을 끊으려는 의욕을 내어,

방편을 써서 꾸준히 노력하고 마음으로 거두어들이는 것을 단단이라고 한다.

어떤 것을 율의단이라 하는가？

아직 일어나지 않은 악하고 착하지 않은 법을 일어나지 않게 하려는 의욕을 내어,

방편을 써서 꾸준히 노력하고 거두어들이는 것을 율의단이라고 한다.

어떤 것을 수호단이라고 하는가？

아직 일어나지 않은 착한 법을 일어나게 하려는 의욕을 내어,

방편을 써서 꾸준히 노력하고 거두어들이는 것을 수호단이라고 한다.

어떤 것을 수단이라 하는가？

이미 일어난 착한 법을 더욱 닦아 익히려는 의욕을 내어,

방편을 써서 꾸준히 노력하고 거두어들이는 것을 수단이라고 하느니라.”

부처님께서 이 경을 말씀하시자, 모든 비구들은 부처님의 말씀을 듣고 기뻐하며 받들어 행하였다.

— 《잡아함경》 제31권 제877경 〈사정단경 ③〉한문본 & 한글본

4신족.

4신족(四神足)은 욕신족(欲神足) · 근신족(勤神足) · 심신족(心神足) · 관신족(觀神足)을 말한다

《불설선행삼십칠품경》(佛說禪行三十七品經)에서는 4신족에 대해 다음과 같이 말하고 있다.

T15n0604_p0180c25║佛言：「諸比丘！若彈指間，惟行欲定(욕신족)斷生死，惟

T15n0604_p0181a01║神足，是為最精進行禪，為如佛教，不是愚癡
T15n0604_p0181a02║食人施，何況多行者，撮取其要；若彈指間，惟
T15n0604_p0181a03║行精進定(근신족)，若惟行意定(심신족)
T15n0604_p0181a03║及戒定(심신족)斷生死，惟神
T15n0604_p0181a04║足，皆如上說，何況多行者；是故可念行四神
T15n0604_p0181a05║足。」

부처님께서 모든 비구들에게 말씀하셨다.

“만약 손가락을 튀기는 순간에도 오직 욕신족(欲神足, 욕정 欲定)을 행하여 생사를 끊고,

신족(神足)을 사유(思惟)한다면, 이것이 바로 최상의 정진으로 선을 행하는 것이며, 부처님께서 가르치신 대로이니,

어리석은 사람이 남의 보시만 먹는 것이 아닐진대, 어찌 하물며 많이 행한 이이겠느냐?

그 요체를 모아 잡아서 만약 손가락을 튀기는 순간에도 오직 근신족(勤神足, 정진정 精進定)을 행하며,

심신족(心神足, 의정 意定) 및 관신족(觀神足, 계정 戒定)을 행하여 생사를 끊고,

신족을 사유한다면, 모두 위에서 설한 바와 같으니, 어찌 하물며 많이 행한 이이겠느냐?

그러므로 4신족(神足)을 생각하여 행해야 하느니라.”

— 《불설선행삼십칠품경》(佛說禪行三十七品經)

욕신족은 욕구[欲] 즉 마음의 희구하는 힘

즉 기도(祈禱)나 염불을 통해 인발(引發)된 선정과 그 선정을 통해 성취한 신통력을 뜻한다.

근신족은 정진[勤] 즉 마음의 열심히 행하는 힘

즉 악을 끊고 선을 증장시키려는 지속적인 노력을 통해 인발된 선정과 그 선정을 통해 성취한 신통력을 뜻한다.

보시 즉 봉사활동을 통해 인발된 선정과 그 선정을 통해 성취한 신통력을 뜻한다.

심신족은 마음[心]의 생각하는[念] 힘

즉 주의력과 집중력과 자각력 즉 4념처를 통해 인발된 선정과 그 선정을 통해 성취한 신통력을 뜻한다

관신족은 마음의 사유하는[觀, 尋] 힘

즉 불법(佛法)의 이치를 사유함[觀]을 통해 인발된 선정과 그 선정을 통해 성취한 신통력을 뜻한다.

불법의 이치를 사유한다는 것은

예를 들어 4성제 · 12연기법 · 37도품 · 4무량심 · 6바라밀 · 공의 이치에 대해 사유하는 것을 말한다.

말하자면, 4신족은 선정 즉 삼매를 성취하는 방법으로 네 가지 길이 있음을 뜻한다. 요가에 대비하자면, 욕신족은 박티 요가, 근신족은 카르마 요가, 심신족은 라자 요가, 관신족은 즈냐나 요가에 해당한다. 그리고 선정은 반야가 발현되게 하는 직접적인 수단 또는 원인이다.

5근

5근(五根)은 신근(信根) · 진근(進根) · 염근(念根) · 정근(定根) · 혜근(慧根)을 말한다.[49][52]

《불설선행삼십칠품경》(佛說禪行三十七品經)에서는 5근에 대해 다음과 같이 말하고 있다.

T15n0604_p0181a05║佛言：「諸比丘！若彈指間，惟行信根(신근)，以見四

T15n0604_p0181a06║喜之事，不離佛亦法與眾及戒，是為精進行
T15n0604_p0181a07║禪，為如佛教，不是愚癡食人施，何況多行者，
T15n0604_p0181a08║撮取其要；若彈指間，惟行精進根(진근)，以見四意
T15n0604_p0181a09║斷(4정단)；若惟行念根(염근)，以見四意止(4념처)；若惟行定根(정근)，以
T15n0604_p0181a10║見四禪；若惟行慧根(혜근)，以見四諦，皆如上說，何
T15n0604_p0181a11║況多行者；是故可念行五根(5근)。」

부처님께서 모든 비구들에게 말씀하셨다.

“만약 손가락을 튀기는 순간에도 오직 신근(信根)을 행하여 4희(喜)의 일을 보며,

부처님과 법과 대중들과 계를 여의지 않는다면, 이것이 바로 정진하여 선을 행하는 것이며,

부처님께서 가르치신 대로이니, 어리석은 사람이 남의 보시만 먹는 것이 아닐진대,

어찌 하물며 많이 행한 이이겠느냐?

그 요체를 모아 잡아서 만약 손가락을 튀기는 순간에도 오직 진근(進根, 정진근 精進根)을 행하여

4정단(四正斷, 4의단 四意斷)을 보고, 염근(念根)을 행하여 4념처(四念處, 4의지 四意止)를 보고,

정근(定根)을 행하여 4선(禪)을 보고, 혜근(慧根)을 행하여 4제(諦)를 본다면,

모두 위에서 설한 바와 같으니, 어찌 하물며 많이 행한 이이겠느냐? 그

러므로 5근(根)을 생각하여 행해야 하느니라.”

— 《불설선행삼십칠품경》(佛說禪行三十七品經)

5근은 번뇌를 항복시키고 성도의 길에서 향상(向上)하게 하는 다섯 가지 마음작용으로,

5무루근(五無漏根) 또는 5선근(五善根)이라고도 한다.

《잡아함경》 제26권 제646경 〈당지경〉(當知經)에 따르면 5근은 다음을 뜻한다.

신근(信根): 4불괴정(四不壞淨)을 뜻한다. 4불괴정은 4증정(四證淨)이라고도 하는데, 불증정(佛證淨) · 법증정(法證淨) · 승증정(僧證淨) · 계증정(戒證淨)을 말한다. 무루지로 4성제의 이치를 증득함에 의하여 불 · 법 · 승 3보와 계(戒)에 대해 바른 믿음을 내는 것이다
진근(進根): 4정단(四正斷)을 뜻한다. 즉, 37도품의 제2과인 단단 · 율의단 · 수호단 · 수단을 통칭하여 진근이라고 한다.
염근(念根): 4념처(四念處)를 뜻한다. 즉, 37도품의 제1과인 신념처 · 수념처 · 심념처 · 법념처를 통칭하여 염근이라고 한다.
정근(定根): 4선(四禪)을 뜻한다. 즉, 색계의 선정인 초선 · 2선 · 3선 · 4선을 통칭하여 정근이라고 한다.
혜근(慧根): 4성제(四聖諦)를 뜻한다. 즉, 고성제 · 집성제 · 멸성제 · 도성제를 아는 무루지를 통칭하여 혜근이라고 한다.

T02n0099_p0182b16║如是我聞：一時，佛住舍衛國祇樹給
T02n0099_p0182b17║孤獨園。爾時，世尊告諸比丘：「有五根。何等
T02n0099_p0182b18║為五？謂信根、精進根、念根、定根、慧根。信根
T02n0099_p0182b19║者，當知是四不壞淨；精進根者，當知是四
T02n0099_p0182b20║正斷；念根者，當知是四念處；定根者，當知
T02n0099_p0182b21║是四禪；慧根者，當知是四聖諦。」佛說此
T02n0099_p0182b22║經已，諸比丘聞佛所說，歡喜奉行。

이와 같이 나는 들었다. 어느 때 부처님께서 사위국 기수급고독원에 계셨다. 그때 세존께서 여러 비구들에게 말씀하셨다.

“다섯 가지 능력이 있다. 어떤 것이 그 다섯 가지 능력인가? 이른바 신근(信根) · 정진근(精進根) · 염근(念根) · 정근(定根) · 혜근(慧根)이니라. 신근이란 마땅히 4불괴정(不壞淨)이라는 것을 알아야 하고, 정진근이란 4정단(正斷)임을 알아야 하며, 염근이란 4념처(念處)임을 마땅히 알아야 하고, 정근이란 4선(禪)임을 알아야 하며, 혜근이란 4성제(聖諦)임을 마땅히 알아야 하느니라.”

부처님께서 이 경을 말씀하시자, 모든 비구들은 부처님의 말씀을 듣고 기뻐하며 받들어 행하였다.

— 《잡아함경》 제26권 제646경 〈당지경〉(當知經) 한문본 & 한글본

한편, 《아비달마구사론》 제25권에 따르면 5근의 각 항목은 그 순서에 이유가 있다. 그 순서대로 먼저 인과법칙 즉 업과 업의 과보의 법칙 즉 연기법에 대한 믿음을 일으키고, 그 믿음에 바탕하여 정진하고 즉 악을 끊고 선을 증장시키고자 하고, 이 결과 4념처를 수행하게 되고, 4념처 수행에 의해 4선 등의 선정에 들고, 4선 등의 선정을 통해 제법실상을 아는 지혜 즉 반야를 성취한다.[49]

T29n1558_p0132c13║信等何
T29n1558_p0132c14║緣次第如是。謂於因果先起信心為果修
T29n1558_p0132c15║因。次起精進由精進故念住所緣。由念
T29n1558_p0132c16║力持心便得定。心得定故能如實知。是故
T29n1558_p0132c17║信等如是次第。

‘신’ 등은 어떠한 연유에서 이와 같은 순서로 설해진 것인가? 이를테면 인과에 대해 먼저 신심(信心)을 일으킨 이는 결과를 얻기 위해 원인을 닦아야 하므로 다음으로 정진을 일으킨다. 정진으로 말미암아 염(念)은 소연에 머물게 되고, 염의 힘으로 말미암아 마음은 바로 선정을 획득하게 되며, 마음이 선정을 획득하였기 때문에 능히 참답게 아는 것이니, 그렇기 때문에 ‘신’ 등의 순서가 이와 같은 것이다.

— 《아비달마구사론》 제25권 한문본 & 한글본

5력

이 부분의 본문은 5력입니다.

5력(五力)은 신력(信力) · 진력(進力) · 염력(念力) · 정력(定力) · 혜력(慧力)을 말한다.[54][55]

《불설선행삼십칠품경》(佛說禪行三十七品經)에서는 5력에 대해 다음과 같이 말하고 있다.

T15n0604_p0181a11║佛言：「諸比丘！若
T15n0604_p0181a12║彈指間，惟行信力(신력)，從得四喜之事，令無能壞，
T15n0604_p0181a13║是為精進行禪，為如佛教，非是愚癡食人施，
T15n0604_p0181a14║何況多行者；若彈指間，惟行精進力(진력)，若念力(염력)，
T15n0604_p0181a15║若定力(정력)，若慧力(혜력)，皆如上說，何況多行者；是故
T15n0604_p0181a16║可念行五力(5력)。」

부처님께서 모든 비구들에게 말씀하셨다.“만약 손가락을 튀기는 순간에도 오직 신력(信力)을 행하여 4희(喜)의 일을 얻어 능히 파괴할 수 없게 된다면, 이것이 바로 정진하여 선을 행하는 것이며, 부처님께서 가르치신 대로이니, 어리석은 사람이 남의 보시만 먹는 것이 아닐진대, 어찌 하물며 많이 행한 이이겠느냐?

만약 손가락을 튀기는 순간에도 오직 진력(進力, 정진력 精進力)과 염력(念力)과 정력(定力)과 혜력(慧力)을 행한다면, 모두 위에서 설한 바와 같으니, 어찌 하물며 많이 행한 이이겠느냐? 그러므로 5력(力)을 생각하여 행해야 하느니라.”

— 《불설선행삼십칠품경》(佛說禪行三十七品經)
한문본 & 한글본, 한문본의 괄호와 한글본의 일부는 편집자가 편집

5근은 번뇌를 항복시키고 성도의 길에서 향상(向上)하게 하는 다섯 가지 마음작용으로, 37도품의 제4과인 5근과 내용이 동일하다. 차이점은 5근에 비해 5력은 그 힘이 더 강해진 것이다.[49][55][119]

《잡아함경》 제26권 제675경 〈당지오력경〉(當知五力經)에 따르면 5력은 다음을 뜻한다.

신력(信力): 4불괴정(四不壞淨)을 뜻한다. 즉, 불증정(佛證淨) · 법증정(法證淨) · 승증정(僧證淨) · 계증정(戒證淨)을 통칭하여 신력이라고 한다.
진력(進力): 4정단(四正斷)을 뜻한다. 즉, 37도품의 제2과인 단단 · 율의단 · 수호단 · 수단을 통칭하여 진력이라고 한다.
염력(念力): 4념처(四念處)를 뜻한다. 즉, 37도품의 제1과인 신념처 · 수념처 · 심념처 · 법념처를 통칭하여 염력이라고 한다.
정력(定力): 4선(四禪)을 뜻한다. 즉, 색계의 선정인 초선 · 2선 · 3선 · 4선을 통칭하여 정력이라고 한다.
혜력(慧力): 4성제(四聖諦)를 뜻한다. 즉, 고성제 · 집성제 · 멸성제 · 도성제를 아는 무루지를 통칭하여 혜력이라고 한다.

T02n0099_p0185c09║如是我聞：一時，佛住舍衛國祇樹給孤
T02n0099_p0185c10║獨園。爾時，世尊告諸比丘……如上說。差別者：
T02n0099_p0185c11║「彼信力，當知是四不壞淨。精進力者，當知
T02n0099_p0185c12║是四正斷。念力者，當知四念處。定力者，當
T02n0099_p0185c13║知是四禪。慧力者，當知是四聖諦。」佛說此
T02n0099_p0185c14║經已，諸比丘聞佛所說，歡喜奉行。

이와 같이 나는 들었다. 어느 때 부처님께서 사위국 기수급고독원에 계셨다. 그때 세존께서 모든 비구들에게 말씀하셨다.……(이 사이의 자세한 내용은 위의 소경에서 설한 것과 같으며, 다만 그와 다른 내용은 다음과 같다.)

“그 믿음의 힘이란 4불괴정(不壞淨)임을 마땅히 알아야 하고, 정진의 힘이란 4정단(正斷)임을 마땅히 알아야 하며, 생각의 힘이란 4념처(念處)임을 마땅히 알아야 하고, 선정의 힘이란 4선(禪)임을 마땅히 알아야 하며, 지혜의 힘이란 4성제(聖諦)임을 마땅히 알아야 하느니라.”

부처님께서 이 경을 말씀하시자, 모든 비구들은 부처님의 말씀을 듣고 기뻐하며 받들어 행하였다.

— 《잡아함경》 제26권 제675경 〈당지오력경〉(當知五力經) 한문본 & 한글본

7각지

이 부분의 본문은 7각지입니다.

7각지(七覺支)는 염각지(念覺支) · 택법각지(擇法覺支) · 정진각지(精進覺支) · 희각지(喜覺支) · 경안각지(輕安覺支) · 정각지(定覺支) · 사각지(捨覺支)를 말한다.[14][69][70][71]

《불설선행삼십칠품경》(佛說禪行三十七品經)에서는 7각지에 대해 다음과 같이 말하고 있다.

T15n0604_p0181a17║佛言諸比丘：「若彈指間，惟行念覺意(염각지)，以念所
T15n0604_p0181a18║當念，以愛念，以正念，為善法念，得志不忘，
T15n0604_p0181a19║是為精進行禪，為如佛教，不是愚癡食人施，
T15n0604_p0181a20║何況多行者，撮取其要；若彈指間，惟行法解
T15n0604_p0181a21║覺意(택법각지)，其意經經分別解、隨順解；若惟行精進
T15n0604_p0181a22║覺意(정진각지)，其身精進，意亦精進；若惟行愛覺意(희각지)，知
T15n0604_p0181a23║所當愛，令意得喜；若惟行止覺意(경안각지)，令身休止，
T15n0604_p0181a24║意亦休止；若惟行定覺意(정각지)，令意住念亦住，志
T15n0604_p0181a25║不亂，不邪念；若惟行護覺意(사각지)，為護行知所念，
T15n0604_p0181a26║知安身，令見道護惡念，安隱行事，事皆如上
T15n0604_p0181a27║說，何況多行者；是故可念行七覺意。」

부처님께서 모든 비구들에게 말씀하셨다.

“만약 손가락을 튀기는 순간에도 오직 염각지(念覺支, 염각의 念覺意)를 행하여서 마땅히 생각할 바를 생각하여 애념(愛念)과 정념(正念)으로 선법염(善法念)을 삼아 뜻을 얻어 잊어버리지 않는다면, 이것이 바로 정진하여 선을 행하는 것이며, 부처님께서 가르치신 대로이니, 어리석은 사람이 남의 보시만 먹는 것이 아닐진대, 어찌 하물며 많이 행한 이이겠느냐?

그 요체를 모아 잡아서 만약 손가락을 튀기는 순간에도 오직 택법각지(擇法覺支, 법을 이해하는 각의 法解覺意)를 행하여서 그 뜻을 경(經)마다 분별하여 알고 수순(隨順)하여 이해하며, 만약 정진각지(精進覺支, 정진각의 精進覺意)를 행하여서 그 몸이 정진하고 뜻도 또한 정진하며, 희각지(喜覺支, 애각의 愛覺意)를 행하여서 마땅히 사랑할 바를 알아 뜻으로 기쁨을 얻게 하며, 경안각지(輕安覺支, 지각의 止覺意)를 행하여서 몸이 휴지(休止)하고 뜻도 또한 휴지하게 하며, 정각지(定覺支, 정각의 定覺意)를 행하여서 뜻이 멈추고 생각도 또한 멈추며 뜻이 어수선하지 않고 삿된 생각을 하지 않게 하며, 사각지(捨覺支, 호각의 護覺意)를 행하고 행(行)을 호지(護持)하여 생각할 바를 알고 몸을 편하게 함을 알며, 도를 보아 악념을 호섭(護攝)하고 행하는 일마다 안온케 한다면, 모두 위에서 설한 바와 같으니, 어찌 하물며 많이 행한 이이겠느냐? 그러므로 7각지(七覺支, 7각의 七覺意)를 생각하여 행해야 하느니라.”

— 《불설선행삼십칠품경》(佛說禪行三十七品經)
한문본 & 한글본, 한문본의 괄호와 한글본의 일부는 편집자가 편집

7각지는 각(覺) 즉 보리 즉 지혜가 현행할 수 있게 하는 일곱 가지 마음작용이다.[70][71]

염각지(念覺支): 불도를 수행함에 있어서 잘 생각하여 지(止) · 관(觀)이 고르게 하는 것
택법각지(擇法覺支): 지혜로써 진실한 법과 허위의 법을 가리는 것
정진각지(精進覺支): 게으르지 않고 열심히 정법을 수행하는 것
희각지(喜覺支): 정법의 획득과 성취에 기뻐하는 것
경안각지(輕安覺支): 의각지(猗覺支)라고도 하며 몸과 마음이 경쾌하고 안온한 것
정각지(定覺支): 선정에 들어 마음에 산란함이 없는 것
사각지(捨覺支): 마음에 편파나 집착이 없어 균형된 것

《잡아함경》 제27권 제715경 〈식경〉(食經)에 따르면 7각지를 머물게 하고 존립하게 하는 자양분이 있는데 다음과 같다.

염각지: 4념처(四念處)를 사유하는 것
택법각지: 선법(善法)과 불선법(不善法)을 가려 사유하는 것
정진각지: 4정단(四正斷)을 사유하는 것
희각지: 기쁨[喜]과 기쁜 곳[喜處]를 사유하는 것
경안각지: 몸의 쉼[身猗息]과 마음의 쉼[心猗息]을 사유하는 것
정각지: 4선(四禪)을 사유하는 것
사각지: 단계(斷界) · 무욕계(無欲界) · 멸계(滅界)의 3계를 사유하는 것

T02n0099_p0192c16║譬如身
T02n0099_p0192c17║依食而住、依食而立；如是七覺分依食而
T02n0099_p0192c18║住、依食而立。「何等為念覺分食？謂四念處
T02n0099_p0192c19║思惟已，未生念覺分令起，已生念覺分轉生
T02n0099_p0192c20║令增廣，是名念覺分食。「何等為擇法覺分
T02n0099_p0192c21║食？有擇善法，有擇不善法，彼思惟已，未生
T02n0099_p0192c22║擇法覺分令起，已生擇法覺分重生令增廣，
T02n0099_p0192c23║是名擇法覺分食。「何等為精進覺分食？彼四
T02n0099_p0192c24║正斷思惟，未生精進覺分令起，已生精進覺
T02n0099_p0192c25║分重生令增廣，是名精進覺分食。「何等為
T02n0099_p0192c26║喜覺分食？有喜，有喜處，彼思惟，未生喜覺分
T02n0099_p0192c27║令起，已生喜覺分重生令增廣，是名喜覺
T02n0099_p0192c28║分食。「何等為猗覺分食，有身猗息、心猗息思
T02n0099_p0192c29║惟，未生猗覺分令起，已生猗覺分重生令增
T02n0099_p0193a01║廣，是名猗覺分食。「何等為定覺分食？謂有
T02n0099_p0193a02║四禪思惟，未生定覺分令生起，已生定覺分
T02n0099_p0193a03║重生令增廣，是名定覺分食。「何等為捨覺
T02n0099_p0193a04║分食？有三界。何等三？謂斷界、無欲界、滅界。
T02n0099_p0193a05║彼思惟，未生捨覺分令起，已生捨覺分重生
T02n0099_p0193a06║令增廣，是名捨覺分食。」

비유하면, 몸은 음식을 의지해 머물고 음식을 의지해 존립하는 것과 같이, 7각지[覺分]도 자양분을 의지해 머물고 자양분을 의지해 존립한다. 어떤 것을 염각지의 자양분이라고 하는가? 이른바 4념처를 생각하면 아직 생기지 않은 염각지는 일어나게 하고, 이미 생긴 염각지는 더욱 생겨 많아지게 한다. 이것을 염각지의 자양분이라고 한다. 어떤 것을 택법각지의 자양분이라고 하는가？ 착한 법을 가리고[擇] 착하지 않은 법을 가려 그것을 생각하면 아직 생기지 않은 택법각지는 일어나게 하고, 이미 생긴 택법각지는 거듭 생겨 더욱 많아지게 한다. 이것을 택법각지의 자양분이라고 한다.

어떤 것을 정진각지의 자양분이라고 하는가? 저 4정단에 대해 생각하면 아직 생기지 않은 정진각지는 일어나게 하고 이미 생긴 정진각지는 거듭 생겨 더욱 많아지게 한다. 이것을 정진각지의 자양분이라고 한다. 어떤 것을 희각지의 자양분이라고 하는가？ 희열과 희열의 경계가 있는데, 그것을 생각하면 아직 생기지 않은 희각지는 일어나게 하고, 아직 생기지 않은 희각지는 거듭 생겨 더욱 많아지게 한다. 이것을 희각지의 자양분이라고 한다. 어떤 것을 의각지의 자양분이라고 하는가？ 몸의 쉼과 마음의 쉼이 있는데 이것을 생각하면 아직 생기지 않은 의각지는 일어나지 않고, 이미 생긴 의각지는 거듭 생겨 더욱 많아지게 한다.

어떤 것을 정각지의 자양분이라고 하는가? 이른바 4선(禪)이 있는데, 그것을 생각하면 생기지 않은 정각지는 일어나게 하고, 이미 생긴 정각지는 거듭 생겨 더욱 많아지게 한다. 이것을 정각지의 자양분이라고 한다. 어떤 것을 사각지의 자양분이라고 하는가? 세 세계가 있는데, 어떤 것이 그 세 가지인가？ 단계(斷界) · 무욕계(無欲界) · 멸계(滅界)이니, 그것을 생각하면 아직 생기지 않은 사각지는 일어나게 하고 이미 생긴 사각지는 거듭 생겨 더욱 많아지게 한다. 이것을 사각지의 자양분이라고 한다.

— 제27권 제715경 〈식경〉(食經)

그리고 《잡아함경》 제27권 제737경 〈칠도품경〉(七道品經)에 따르면 7각지는 차례로 일어난다.

T02n0099_p0196c21║如是我聞：一時，佛住舍衛國祇樹給孤

T02n0099_p0196c22║獨園。爾時，世尊告諸比丘：「所謂覺分。何等為
T02n0099_p0196c23║覺分？」諸比丘白佛：「世尊是法根、法眼、法依，唯
T02n0099_p0196c24║願為說。諸比丘聞已，當受奉行。」佛告諸比
T02n0099_p0196c25║丘、比丘尼：「七覺分者，謂七道品法。諸比丘！此
T02n0099_p0196c26║七覺分漸次起，漸次起已，修習滿足。」諸比丘
T02n0099_p0196c27║白佛：「云何七覺分漸次起，漸次起已，修習滿
T02n0099_p0196c28║足？「若比丘身身觀念住，彼身身觀念住已，專
T02n0099_p0196c29║心繫念不忘，當於爾時方便修念覺分；方
T02n0099_p0197a01║便修念覺分已，修習滿足，謂修念覺分已，
T02n0099_p0197a02║於法選擇，當於爾時修擇法覺分方便，修
T02n0099_p0197a03║擇法覺分方便已，修習滿足。如是精進、喜、
T02n0099_p0197a04║猗、定、捨覺分亦如是說。如內身，如是外
T02n0099_p0197a05║身、內外身，受、心、法法觀念住，專心繫念不
T02n0099_p0197a06║忘，當於爾時方便修念覺分，方便修念覺
T02n0099_p0197a07║分已，修習滿足。乃至捨覺分亦如是說，是
T02n0099_p0197a08║名比丘七覺分漸次起，漸次起已，修習滿足。」
T02n0099_p0197a09║佛說此經已，諸比丘聞佛所說，歡喜奉行。

이와 같이 나는 들었다. 어느 때 부처님께서 사위국 기수급고독원에 계셨다.

그때 세존께서 모든 비구들에게 말씀하셨다. “각지[覺分]라 말했는데 어떤 것을 각지라고 하는가?”

비구들이 부처님께 아뢰었다.

“세존께서는 법의 근본이시고, 법의 눈이시며, 법의 의지처이십니다.

원컨대 말씀하여 주십시오. 저희 비구들은 마땅히 그것을 듣고 받들어 행하겠습니다.”

부처님께서 비구와 비구니들에게 말씀하셨다.

“7각지란 7도품(道品)을 일컫는 말이다.

비구들아, 이 7각지는 차례로 일어나는데, 차례로 일어나면 그것을 닦아 익혀 원만히 구족해야 하느니라.”

비구들이 부처님께 아뢰었다.

“7각지는 어떻게 차례로 일어나며, 차례로 일어나면 어떻게 닦아 익혀 원만히 구족해야 합니까?”

“만일 비구가 몸을 몸 그대로 관찰하는 생각에 머물고,

그가 몸을 몸 그대로 관찰하는 생각에 머문 뒤에는

전일한 마음으로 생각을 집중하여 잊지 않으면,

그때 염각지를 방편으로써 닦고,

염각지를 방편으로 닦은 뒤에는 닦고 익힌 것을 원만히 구족하게 된다.

이른바 염각지를 닦은 뒤에 법을 선택하고 가리면

이때 택법각지를 방편으로써 닦고,

택법각지를 방편으로써 닦은 뒤에는 닦아 익힌 것을 원만히 갖추게 된다.

이와 같아서 정진각지 · 희각지 · 의각지 · 정각지 · 사각지도 또한 마찬가지이다.

안의 몸과 마찬가지로 바깥의 몸 · 안팎의 몸 · 느낌[受] · 마음[心] · 법(法)을 법 그대로 관찰하는 생각에 머물러,

전일한 마음으로 생각을 집중하여 잊지 않으면,

그때 염각지를 방편으로써 닦고, 염각지를 방편으로써 닦은 뒤에는 닦고 익힌 것을 원만히 구족하게 되며, …… (내지)……사각지도 또한 그와 같다. 이것을 이름하여 비구가 7각지가 차례로 일어나는데,

차례로 일어난 뒤에는 닦아 익혀 원만히 구족하게 하는 것이라고 하느니라.”

부처님께서 이 경을 말씀하시자, 모든 비구들은 부처님의 말씀을 듣고 기뻐하며 받들어 행하였다.

— 《잡아함경》 제27권 제737경 〈칠도품경〉(七道品經)

8정도

8정도(八正道)는 정견(正見) · 정사유(正思惟) · 정어(正語) · 정업(正業) · 정명(正命) · 정정진(正精進) · 정념(正念) · 정정(正定)를 말한다.

《불설선행삼십칠품경》(佛說禪行三十七品經)에서는 8정도에 대해 다음과 같이 말하고 있다.

T15n0604_p0181a27║佛言：「諸

T15n0604_p0181a28║比丘！若彈指間，惟行正見(정견)，以知古知始知
T15n0604_p0181a29║終，知內知外，知苦知習知盡知道，知佛知
T15n0604_p0181b01║法知比丘眾，知學行事如六合，所習所取，歡
T15n0604_p0181b02║樂變失，及其歸趣，知不貪之德，是為正見，為
T15n0604_p0181b03║精進行禪，為如佛教，不是愚癡食人施，何況
T15n0604_p0181b04║多行者，撮取其要；若彈指間，惟行正思(정사유)，為思
T15n0604_p0181b05║出家、思不諍、思不殺；若惟行正語(정어)、不妄語、不
T15n0604_p0181b06║兩舌、不惡口、不形笑；若惟行正命(정명)，不以貪生
T15n0604_p0181b07║活，不恚生活，不以癡生活；若惟行正業(정업)，不殺、
T15n0604_p0181b08║不盜竊、不邪婬；若惟行正治(정정진)，以修治四意斷(4정단)
T15n0604_p0181b09║之事；若惟行正念(정념)，以受行四意止(4념처)，亦惟行正
T15n0604_p0181b10║定(정정)，以思念四禪事，事皆同如上說，其彈指間
T15n0604_p0181b11║功德如是，何況多行者；是故可念行八正道(8정도)。」

부처님께서 모든 비구들에게 말씀하셨다.

“만약 손가락을 튀기는 순간에도 오직 정견(正見)을 행하여

옛적을 알고 지금을 알며 처음을 알고 나중을 알며,

안을 알고 바깥을 알며,

고(苦)를 알고 습(習)을 알고 진(盡)을 알고 도(道)를 알며,

부처님을 알고 법을 알고 비구 대중을 알며, 학행(學行) 하는 일에서

저 6합(合)의 습(習)하는 바와 취(取)하는 바와 환희함과 변실(變失)함과 그 귀취(歸趣)를 알며, 탐하지 않는 덕을 안다면,

이것이 바로 정견(正見)이요

정진하여 선을 행하는 것이며, 부처님께서 가르치신 대로이니,

어리석은 사람이 남의 보시만 먹는 것이 아닐진대, 어찌 하물며 많이 행한 이이겠느냐?

그 요체를 모아 잡아서 만약 손가락을 튀기는 순간에도

오직 정사유(正思惟, 정사 正思)를 행하여

출가(出家) 하기를 생각하여 다투지 않기를 생각하고 살생하지 않기를 생각하며,

만약 오직 정어(正語)를 행하여 망녕된 말을 하지 않고 양설(兩舌)을 하지 않고 악구(惡口)를 하지 않고 함부로 웃지 않으며, 만약 오직 정명(正命)을 행하여 탐욕으로 생활하지 않고 성냄으로 생활하지 않고 어리석음으로 생활하지 않으며,

만약 오직 정업(正業)을 행하여 살생하지 않고 훔치지 않고 사음(邪婬)하지 않으며,

만약 오직 정정진(正精進, 정치 正治)를 행하여 4정단(四正斷, 4의단 四意斷)의 일을 닦아 다스리며,

만약 오직 정념(正念)을 행하여 4념처(四念處, 4의지 四意止)를 수행하며,

또한 오직 정정(正定)을 행하여 4선(禪)의 일을 생각한다면,

모두 위에서 설한 바와 같으니,

그 손가락을 튀기는 순간의 공덕도 이와 같은데 어찌 하물며 많이 행한 이이겠느냐? 그

러므로 8정도(正道)를 생각하여 행해야 하느니라.”

— 《불설선행삼십칠품경》(佛說禪行三十七品經)

위의 《불설선행삼십칠품경》과 《중아함경》 제49권 제189경 〈성도경〉(聖道經)에 따르면 8정도는 다음과 같다.

8정도불설선행삼십칠품경중아함경 제49권 제189경 성도경(聖道經)

1. 정견(正見)	옛적을 알고 지금을 앎: 과거와 현재 즉 인과를 앎 처음을 알고 나중을 앎: 처음과 끝 즉 연기를 앎 안을 알고 바깥을 앎: 안과 밖 즉 12처 즉 일체법을 앎 고(苦) · 습(習) · 진(盡) · 도(道)를 앎: 고집멸도의 4성제를 앎 부처님을 알고 법을 알고 비구 대중을 앎: 불법승의 3보를 앎 6합(六合)의 습(習)하는 바와 취(取)하는 바와 환희함과 변실(變失)함과 그 귀취(歸趣)를 앎: 6근(六根)을 여실히 통달하여 앎 탐하지 않는 덕을 앎	보시도 있고 재도 있고 또한 주설도 있다고 보는 것[有施有齋亦有呪說] 선악의 업도 있고 선악업의 과보도 있다고 보는 것[有善惡業有善惡業報] 이 세계도 있고 저 세계도 있다고 보는 것[有此世彼世] 아비도 있고 어미도 있다고 보는 것[有父有母] 세상에는 좋은 곳에 이르고 잘 가고 잘 향하며 이 세상과 저 세상을 스스로 알고 스스로 깨닫고 스스로 징험하고 성취하여 노니는 참 사람도 있다고 보는 것[世有眞人往至善處善去善向此世彼世自知自覺自作證成就遊]
2. 정사유(正思惟)	출가하기를 생각함 다투지 않기를 생각함 살생하지 않기를 생각함	탐욕이 없는 생각[無欲念] 성냄이 없는 생각[無恚念] 해침이 없는 생각[無害念]
3. 정어(正語)	망녕된 말을 하지 않음: 거짓말을 하지 않음 양설(兩舌)을 하지 않음: 이간하는 말을 하지 않음 악구(惡口)를 하지 않음: 추악한 말을 하지 않음 함부로 웃지 않음: 꾸밈말을 하지 않음	거짓말을 여읜 말[離妄言] 이간하는 말을 여읜 말[離兩舌] 추악한 말을 여읜 말[離麤言] 꾸밈말을 여읜 말[離綺語]
4. 정업(正業)	살생하지 않음 훔치지 않음: 도적질하지 않음 사음(邪婬)하지 않음	살생을 여읜 업[離殺] 도둑질을 여읜 업[離不與取] 사음을 여읜 업[離邪婬]
5. 정명(正命)	탐욕으로 생활하지 않음 성냄으로 생활하지 않음 어리석음으로 생활하지 않음	구하는 것이 뜻에 차지 않더라도 여러 가지 축생의 주문을 외우는 등 삿된 방법으로 생활을 존속해 가지 않는 것[若不求無滿意不以若干種畜生之呪不邪命存命] 법답게 의복을 구하고 법답게 음식 · 평상 · 탕약과 여러 가지 생활 도구를 구하는 것[如法求衣被飮食牀榻湯藥諸生活具]
6. 정정진(正精進)	4정단	4정단
7. 정념(正念)	4념처	4념처
8. 정정(正定)	4선	욕심을 여의고 착하지 않은 악법을 여의며 나아가 제4선을 얻어 성취하여 노님[離欲離惡不善之法至得第四禪成就遊]

위의 두 경에서 정견(正見)에 대해서 설하는 바가 서로 다른데,

이에 대하여 고타마 붓다는 《잡아합경》 제28권 제785경 〈광설팔성도경〉에서 정견 등

팔정도의 각각은 좋은 세계로 향하게 하는 것과 출세간으로 향하게 하는 두 가지가 있다고 설하고 있다.

즉, 《불설선행삼십칠품경》의 정견은 출세간을 향하는 관점의 내용이고

《중아함경》 제49권 제189경 〈성도경〉은 좋은 세계로 향하는 관점의 내용이다.

T02n0099_p0203a21║何等為正見？謂正見有二種，有正見，是

T02n0099_p0203a22║世、俗，有漏、有取，轉向善趣；有正見，是聖、出世
T02n0099_p0203a23║間，無漏、無取，正盡苦，轉向苦邊。何等為正
T02n0099_p0203a24║見有漏、有取，向於善趣？若彼見有施、有說，
T02n0099_p0203a25║乃至知世間有阿羅漢，不受後有，是名世
T02n0099_p0203a26║間正見，世、俗，有漏、有取，向於善趣。何等為正
T02n0099_p0203a27║見是聖、出世間，無漏、不取，正盡苦，轉向苦邊？
T02n0099_p0203a28║謂聖弟子苦苦思惟，集、滅、道道思惟，無漏思
T02n0099_p0203a29║惟相應，於法選擇，分別推求，覺知黠慧，開
T02n0099_p0203b01║覺觀察，是名正見是聖、出世間，無漏、不取，正
T02n0099_p0203b02║盡苦，轉向苦邊。

어떤 것이 바른 견해인가？ 바른 견해에는 두 가지가 있다.

하나는 세상 사람과 세속의 바른 견해로서

번뇌[漏]가 있고 취함[取]이 있으면서

좋은 세계로 향하는 것이요,

또 하나는 성인과 출세간(出世間)의 바른 견해로서

번뇌가 없고 취함이 없어,

바로 괴로움을 없애 괴로움의 끝으로 향하는 것이다.

어떤 것을 세상 사람과 세속의 바른 견해로서 번뇌가 있고 취함이 있으면서 좋은 세계로 향하는 것이라고 하는가？

만일 그가 보시[施]가 있고 주장[說]이 있음을 보고,……(내지)……

이 세상에 어떤 아라한이 있어 후생(後生)에 몸을 받지 않는다는 것을 안다면,

그것이 세간의 바른 견해요,

세상 사람과 세속의 바른 견해로서 번뇌가 있고 취함이 있으면서 좋은 세계로 향하는 것이라고 한다.

어떤 것을 성인과 출세간의 바른 견해로서,

번뇌가 없고 취함이 없어, 바로 괴로움을 없애 괴로움의 끝으로 향하는 것이라고 하는가？

이른바 거룩한 제자는 괴로움을 괴로움이라 생각하고, 괴로움의 발생[集]ㆍ소멸[滅]도 마찬가지로 생각하며,

소멸에 이르는 길[道]을 소멸에 이르는 길이라 생각하여,

번뇌가 없는 생각과 서로 호응하여, 법을 선택하고 분별하여 깨달아 앎을 구하고 지혜로 깨닫고 관찰한다.

이것을 성인과 출세간의 바른 견해로서,

번뇌가 없고 취함이 없어 바로 괴로움을 없애 괴로움의 끝으로 향하는 것이라고 하느니라.

— 《잡아함경》 제28권 제785경 〈광설팔성도경〉(廣說八聖道經)

또한, 《잡아함경》 제12권 제301권 〈가전연경〉(迦旃延經)에서

고타마 붓다는 오로지 정견(正見)에 대해서 설하고 있는데 위의 두 경과는

달리 정견은 유무, 즉, 상견과 단견의 두 극단을 떠난 중도에서 있음과 없음

즉 연기법에 따른 발생과 소멸을 있는 그대로 미혹됨이 없이 스스로 아는 것이라 설하고 있다.

그리고 이 설법을 들은 존자 산타가전연은 그 자리에서 해탈하여 아라한이 되었다.

부파불교와 대승불교의 모든 교학은 바로 이 문제

즉 37도품 전체와 그 중의 하나인 정견과의 관계를 해명하는 것이라고 할 수 있다.

《대지도론》 제19권에서는 다음과 같이 말하고 있다.

"하지만 중생들이 괴로움을 싫어하고 즐거움에 집착되었기에

이런 중생들을 위하여 4성제를 말씀하시어

'몸과 마음 등의 모든 법은 모두가 괴로움이어서 즐거움이 없다.

이 괴로움의 인연은 애착[愛] 등의 모든 번뇌에서 유래한다.

이 괴로움이 다한 곳을 열반이라 하며,

방편[즉, 37도품, 6바라밀]으로 열반[즉, 정견, 각]에 이르니

이것을 일컬어 도[즉, 불교]라 한다.' 하셨다."

한편, 아함경과 니까야에 나오는 37도품과 관련된 경들에 의거할 때

구체적인 수행 기법이라는 관점에서 보면 초기불교의 수행법이란 사실상 4념처 수행이라는 것을 알 수 있다.

T02n0099_p0085c17║如是我聞：一時，佛住那梨聚落深林

T02n0099_p0085c18║中待賓舍。爾時，尊者[跳-兆+散]陀迦旃延詣佛所，
T02n0099_p0085c19║稽首佛足，退住一面，白佛言：「世尊！如世尊
T02n0099_p0085c20║說正見。云何正見？云何世尊施設正見？」佛
T02n0099_p0085c21║告[跳-兆+散]陀迦旃延：「世間有二種依，若有、若無，
T02n0099_p0085c22║為取所觸；取所觸故，或依有、或依無。若
T02n0099_p0085c23║無此取者，心境繫著使不取、不住、不計我
T02n0099_p0085c24║苦生而生，苦滅而滅，於彼不疑、不惑，不由
T02n0099_p0085c25║於他而自知，是名正見，是名如來所施設
T02n0099_p0085c26║正見。所以者何？世間集如實正知見，若世間
T02n0099_p0085c27║無者不有，世間滅如實正知見，若世間有
T02n0099_p0085c28║者無有，是名離於二邊說於中道，所謂此
T02n0099_p0085c29║有故彼有，此起故彼起，謂緣無明行，乃至
T02n0099_p0086a01║純大苦聚集，無明滅故行滅，乃至純大苦聚
T02n0099_p0086a02║滅。」佛說此經已，尊者[跳-兆+散]陀迦旃延聞佛所
T02n0099_p0086a03║說，不起諸漏，心得解脫，成阿羅漢。

이와 같이 나는 들었다.

어느 때 부처님께서 나리(那梨)라고 하는 마을 깊은 숲 속에 있는 대빈사(待賓舍)에 계셨다.

그때 존자 산타가전연(跚陁迦旃延)이 부처님 계신 곳으로 나아가 머리를 조아려 부처님의 발에 예배하고

한쪽에 물러나서 부처님께 아뢰었다.

“세존이시여, 세존께서 말씀하시는 바른 소견[正見]이라고 말씀하셨는데,

어떤 것을 바른 소견이라고 하며, 어떤 것을 세존께서 시설하신 바른 소견이라고 합니까？”

부처님께서 산타가전연에게 말씀하셨다.

“세간 사람들이 의지하는 것에 두 가지가 있으니,

유(有)와 혹은 무(無)이다. 취함[取]에 부딪히고,

취함에 부딪히기 때문에 혹은 유에 의지하고 혹은 무에 의지한다.

만일 이 취함이 없다면 마음과 경계를 얽어매는 번뇌를 취하지 않고,

머무르지 않으며, 헤아리지 않을 것이다.

자신에게 괴로움이 생기면 생겼다고 보고, 괴로움이 소멸하면 소멸했다고 보아

그것에 대해 의심하지 않고, 미혹하지 않으며,

다른 사람을 의지하지 않고 스스로 아는 것을 바른 소견이라고 한다.

이것이 여래가 시설한 바른 소견이니라.

왜냐하면 세간의 발생을 사실 그대로 바르게 알고 본다면 세간이 없다는 것은 있을 수 없는 일이요,

세간의 소멸을 사실 그대로 알고 본다면 세간이 있다는 것은 있을 수 없는 일이니,

이것을 두 극단을 떠나 중도에서 말하는 것이라고 하느니라.

이른바 ‘이것이 있기 때문에 저것이 있고, 이것이 일어나기 때문에 저것이 일어난다’는 것이니,

즉 무명을 인연하여 행이 있고 ……(내지)……

순전한 괴로움뿐인 큰 무더기가 발생하며, 무명이 소멸하기 때문에 행이 소멸하고 ……(내지)……

순전한 괴로움뿐인 큰 무더기가 소멸하느니라.”

부처님께서 이 경을 말씀하시자,

존자 산타가전연은 부처님의 말씀을 듣고 모든 번뇌를 일으키지 않고 마음이 해탈하여 아라한이 되었다.

— 《잡아함경》 제12권 제301경 〈가전연경〉(迦旃延經)

수념처

고용한 정원 — Tue, 9 May 2023 09:54:50 +0900

수념처는 느낌[受] 즉 감각을 지관하여 알아차리는 것으로, 간략히 정의하자면, 느낌을 괴로운 것이라고 관하는 것[30][31][99][100] 또는 느낌을 느낌 그대로 관하는 것[觀覺如覺 = 觀受如受]이다.[101] 수념처 수행의 목적이라는 측면에서는, 수념처는 모든 일어나는 느낌을 지관하여 알아차리는데, '일반적인 범부의 상태에서는 항상 낙수(樂受)를 좋아하여 그것을 쫒아 구하는데 이러한 추구와 애착이 도리어 고를 낳는 원인이 된다는 것을 지관하여 알아차리고 또한 일어나는 모든 느낌을 생멸하는 것이므로 고라고 지관하여 알차리거나' 또는 '느낌을 느낌 그대로 지관하여 알아차려서' 무상의 진리를 실천적으로 깨우치는 것이다.[32][101][102]

팔리어 경전 중 《디가 니까야》 제22경 〈대념처경〉(Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta)에 나타나는 수념처의 내용은 다음과 같다.[105]

즐거운 느낌에 대한 알아차림
괴로운 느낌에 대한 알아차림
즐겁지도 괴롭지도 않은 느낌에 대한 알아차림
속된 즐거운 느낌에 대한 알아차림
속되지 않은 즐거운 느낌에 대한 알아차림
속된 괴로운 느낌에 대한 알아차림
속되지 않은 괴로운 느낌에 대한 알아차림
속된 즐겁지도 괴롭지도 않은 느낌에 대한 알아차림
속되지 않은 즐겁지도 괴롭지도 않은 느낌에 대한 알아차림

Bodhipakkhiyādhammā

고용한 정원 — Tue, 9 May 2023 09:53:28 +0900

In Buddhism, the bodhipakkhiyā dhammā (Pali; variant spellings include bodhipakkhikā dhammā and bodhapakkhiyā dhammā; Skt.: bodhipakṣa dharma) are qualities (dhammā) conducive or related to (pakkhiya) awakening/understanding (bodhi), i.e. the factors and wholesome qualities which are developed when the mind is trained (bhavana).

In the Pali commentaries, the term bodhipakkhiyā dhammā is used to refer to seven sets of such qualities regularly attributed to the Buddha throughout the Pali Canon. Within these seven sets of bodhi-related qualities, there is listed a total of thirty-seven repetitious and interrelated qualities (sattatiṃsa bodhipakkhiyā dhammā).

These seven sets of qualities are recognized by both Theravadan and Mahayanan Buddhists as complementary facets of the Buddhist path to bodhi.

Seven sets of thirty-seven qualities

In the Pali Canon's Bhāvanānuyutta sutta ("Mental Development Discourse,"[note 1] AN 7.67), the Buddha is recorded as saying:

'Monks, although a monk who does not apply himself to the meditative development of his mind [bhavana[note 1]] may wish, "Oh, that my mind might be free from the taints by non-clinging!", yet his mind will not be freed. For what reason? "Because he has not developed his mind," one has to say. Not developed it in what? In the four foundations of mindfulness, the four right kinds of striving, the four bases of success, the five spiritual faculties, the five spiritual powers, the seven factors of enlightenment and the Noble Eightfold Path.'

Elsewhere in the Canon,[5] and in numerous places in the āgamas of other early schools, these seven sets of thirty-seven qualities conducive to Enlightenment are enumerated as:

Four establishments/presences of mindfulness (cattāro satipaṭṭhānā)

Main article: Satipatthana

Mindfulness of the body (kāyānupassanā, S. kayānupasthāna)
Mindfulness of feelings (vedanānupassanā, S. vedanānupasthāna)
Mindfulness of mental states (cittānupassanā, S. cittanupasthāna)
Mindfulness of mental qualities (dhammānupassanā, S. dharmanupasthāna)

Four right exertions/efforts/strivings (cattāro sammappadhānā)

Main article: Four Right Exertions

Four bases of spiritual power (cattāro iddhipādā)

Main article: Iddhipada

Intention or will (chanda, S. chanda)
Effort (viriya, S. vīrya)
Consciousness (citta, S. citta)
Skill of Analysis (vīmaṁsa or vīmaŋsā, S. mimāṃsā)

Five spiritual faculties (pañca indriya)

Main article: Indriya

Conviction[7] (saddhā, S. śraddhā)
Effort (viriya, s. vīrya)
Mindfulness (sati, S. smṛti)
Concentration/Unification (samādhi, S. samādhi)
Wisdom (paññā, S. prajñā)

Five Strengths (pañca bala)

Main article: Five Strengths

Conviction (saddhā, S. śraddhā)
Effort (viriya, S. vīrya)
Mindfulness (sati, S. smṛti)
Concentration/Unification (samādhi, S. samādhi)
Wisdom (paññā, S. prajñā)

Seven Factors of bodhi (awakening, understanding)

Main article: Seven factors of awakening

Mindfulness (sati, S. smṛti)
Investigation (dhamma vicaya, S. dharmapravicaya)
Effort (viriya, S. vīrya)
Joy (pīti, S. prīti)
Tranquillity (passaddhi, S. praśrabdhi)
Concentration/Unification (samādhi, S. samādhi)
Equanimity (upekkhā, S. upekṣā)

Noble Eightfold Path

Main article: Noble Eightfold Path

Right Understanding (sammā diṭṭhi, S. samyag-dṛṣṭi)
Right Intention (sammā saṅkappa, S. samyak-saṃkalpa)
Right Speech (sammā vācā, S. samyag-vāc)
Right Action (sammā kammanta, S. samyak-karmānta)
Right Livelihood (sammā ājīva, S. samyag-ājīva)
Right Effort/Energy (sammā vāyāma, S. samyag-vyāyāma)
Right Mindfulness (sammā sati, S. samyak-smṛti)
Right Concentration/Unification (sammā samādhi, S. samyak-samādhi)

Forty-one and forty-three qualities

A sutta found in The Senior Collection of Gandhāran Buddhist texts ascribes forty one instead of thirty seven beneficial dharmas.[8] The Gandharan text includes rūpajhānas which the Pali tradition does not.[8] Salomon notes this forty one numbered list appears in both a Chinese translation of the Dirghagama which current scholarship believes to be of the Dharmaguptaka school of Buddhism and a Chinese translation of the Dharmaguptaka vinaya.

In the Pali Canon's Nettipakaraṇa (Netti 112) forty-three qualities connected with awakening (tecattālīsa bodhipakkhiyā dhammā) are mentioned which, according to the commentaries, include the aforementioned thirty-seven plus the following 6 contemplations (also found in the suttas, e.g. Saṅgīti Sutta D iii 251)

The contemplation of the three marks of existence:

impermanence (aniccasaññā)
suffering (dukkhasaññā)
non-self (anattasaññā)

abandoning (pahānasaññā)
dispassion (virāgasaññā)
cessation (nirodhasaññā)

In the Pali literature

The technical term, bodhipakkhiyā dhammā, explicitly referring to the seven sets of qualities identified above, is first encountered in the Pali commentaries;[2] nonetheless, the seven sets of bodhipakkhiya dhammas are themselves first collated, enumerated and referenced in the Sutta Pitaka and Abhidhamma Pitaka.

Sutta Pitaka

In the Digha Nikāya's famed Maha-parinibbana Sutta (DN 16), which recounts the Buddha's last days, in the Buddha's last address to his assembly of followers he states:

"Now, O bhikkhus, I say to you that these teachings of which I have direct knowledge and which I have made known to you — these you should thoroughly learn, cultivate, develop, and frequently practice, that the life of purity may be established and may long endure, for the welfare and happiness of the multitude, out of compassion for the world, for the benefit, well being, and happiness of gods and men."And what, bhikkhus, are these teachings? They are the four foundations of mindfulness, the four right efforts, the four constituents of psychic power, the five faculties, the five powers, the seven factors of enlightenment, and the Noble Eightfold Path. These, bhikkhus, are the teachings of which I have direct knowledge, which I have made known to you, and which you should thoroughly learn, cultivate, develop, and frequently practice...."

In the Majjhima Nikāya's "Greater Discourse to Sakuludāyin" (MN 77), when asked why his disciples venerated him, the Buddha identified five qualities he possessed: highest virtues (adhisīle ... paramena sīlakkhandha); highest knowledge and vision (abhikkante ñāṇadassane); highest wisdom (adhipaññāya ... paramena paññākkhandha); his explanation of the Four Noble Truths (ariyasaccāni); and, his identification of numerous ways to develop wholesome states. The Buddha's elaboration of the last item included the seven sets of thirty-seven bodhipakkhiya dhammas which are enumerated individually in this discourse.

In the Samyutta Nikaya, the fifth division's first seven chapters are each devoted to one of the bodhipakkhiya dhammas. While there is a great deal of repetition among these chapters' discourses, these seven chapters include almost 900 discourses.

In the Anguttara Nikaya's "Upajjhāyasuttaṃ" (AN 5.6.6), the Buddha recommends five things for a monk to overcome spiritual hindrances: control mental faculties; eat the right amount of food; maintain wakefulness; be aware of merit; and, develop the bodhipakkhiya dhammas throughout the day.

In the Khuddaka Nikāya, the bodhipakkhiya dhammas are mentioned at Iti. 82,[15] Th. 900,[16] and Nett. 31, 112, 197, 237, 240 and 261.

Abhidhamma Pitaka

The bodhipakkhiyā dhammā are mentioned in several passages of the Abhidhamma, such as at Vbh. sections 571 and 584 .

Commentaries

In the Visuddhimagga, Buddhaghosa enumerates the seven sets of bodhipakkhiya dhammas along with a relevant Sutta Pitaka discourse (Vism. XXII.33), describes each set (Vism. XXII.34-38), and describes their existence in the consciousness of an arahant (Vism. XXII.39-40). In addition, Buddhaghosa factors the 37 qualities in a manner so as to describe fourteen non-redundant qualities (Vism. XXII.40-43); thus, for instance, while nine qualities (zeal, consciousness, joy, tranquility, equanimity, intention, speech, action, livelihood) are mentioned only once in the full list of 37 qualities, the other five qualities are mentioned multiple times. Table 1 below identifies the five qualities spanning multiple bodhipakkhiya-dhamma sets.

7 SETS OF QUALITIES4
Establishments of Mindfulness4
Right
Exertions4
Bases of
Power5
Faculties5
Powers7
Seven Factors of AwakeningNoble
Eightfold
Path5QUALITIESFaithEnergyMindfulnessConcentrationWisdom


					saddhā	saddhā
	4 sammā- padhāna	viriya	viriya	viriya	viriya	sammā vāyāma
4 sati- paṭṭhānā			sati	sati	sati	sammā sati
			samādhi	samādhi	samādhi	sammā samādhi
		vīmaṁsa	paññā	paññā	dhammā vicaya	sammā ditthi
Table 1: Five qualities mentioned 28 times across seven sets of qualities conducive to Enlightenment (based on Vism. XXII.41-43).

In terms of other Pali commentaries, the bodhipakkhiyā dhammā are also mentioned in Dhammapada-Aṭṭhakathā (DhA i.230), Suttanipāta-Aṭṭhakathā (SnA 164), and Jātaka-Aṭṭhakathā (J i.275, iii.290, and v.483).